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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 29 of 34 necessary increase in space utilized for hydrogen storage would significantly decrease the power density of onboard power systems and the payloads of ships. Consequently, direct hydrogen storage is probably only viable for domestic or short-sea shipping. Deep-sea shipping, by comparison, requires marine fuels with higher volumetric energy density, such as ammonia, renewable methane and methanol. (2) Considering energy efficiency, power capacity and sensitivity to fuel/oxidant impurities, PEMFC/HT-PEMFC, MCFC and SOFC are the most promising options for maritime applications. Due to the existence of reforming units and WHR units, MCFC and SOFC power systems have lower power densities but higher energy efficiencies compared to a PEMFC power system. Therefore, for the maritime sector, quantifying the power density of different fuel cell power systems (including their storage volume for different marine fuels), determining specific fuel consumption and comparing with conventional marine power systems are important research issues at present. Moreover, the advantages of each power system are dependent upon their application scenarios, and the guidelines for design and applications need to be addressed. (3) Due to the possible integration of reforming units and WHR units, MCFC and SOFC power systems can be characterized by a number of layout options. These include the choice of a standalone or hybrid system, indirect hybrid system or direct hybrid system, atmospheric system or pressurized system, external reforming or internal reforming, etc. A large number of system design and optimization parameters must be considered to maximize performance depending on the specific applications. In addition, optimized operating and control strategies should be employed to improve energy efficiency, reliability and durability. Moreover, hybrid systems coupling fuel cells with batteries, solar PV or diesel generators could effectively improve reliability and durability of fuel cell stacks, and consequently decrease the costs; due to localized cooling, heat and power demands onboard ships, a co- and tri-generation system coupling fuel cells with GT and HVAC is a key consideration to maximize fuel efficiency. An overall system optimization and energy management scheme study, which is clearly ship specific and application dependent, is an important future research requirement. (4) The technical feasibility of fuel cell power systems for maritime applications, in terms of power capacity, safety, reliability, durability and operability, has been verified by significant amounts of research and existing demonstration projects. The significant advantages are mainly characterized by reduced emissions, increased efficiency and quiet operation, which are all attractive for the sustainability of future shipping. However, the disadvantages in terms of power capacity, durability and economic costs are noteworthy as well. The maximum power output of the demonstration projects conducted within the maritime industry is only a few hundred kW, which is far from meeting the requirements of ocean shipping. In addition, the durability tests of practical application scenarios onboard ships are scarce. More convincing results are dependent on the accumulation of more real- world data. Currently, short plant lifetime, high initial investment and operational costs are the main obstacles preventing widespread use of fuel cells in the maritime sector. However, large-scale applications in transport sectors in future are expected to significantly reduce the costs to an acceptable level. In addition, strict regulatory requirements, investment in infrastructure for fuel bunkering and development of design rules and operational guidelines should simultaneously accompany the development of this technology. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.C.; methodology, H.X.; formal analysis, H.X. and C.S.; investigation, H.X. and C.S.; writing-original draft, H.X. and C.S.; resources, S.S.; Writing-review & editing, S.S.; supervision, S.S.; project administration, H.C.; funding acquisition, H.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work was financially supported by the China Scholarship Council, grant number 2019-44, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, grant number 3132019330. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.PDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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