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Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 95 Ednermgieosn20s2tr0a,1t3io,4n20plants are outlined. Indeed, performances, costs and availability of produ4cotfio96n technologies are related to the maturity of the generation route. FFi iggu ur ree 11. . H Hy yd drro og ge en n a an nd d ssy yn nt th heet ti icc n na at tu urraal l g gaass ssu up pp pl ly y cch haai in nss. . R Re en ne ew wa ab bl le e rro ou ut te ess f fo orr t th he e h hy yd drro og geen n aan nd d ssyynntthheetticicnnaattuurraallggaassggeenneerraatitoionn, ,ddisistrtribibuutitoionnppaaththwaayyssaannddeenndd-u-usseeaaltleternrnaatitvivees.s. Foirnaeallcyh, gtahsegegnrereantiosnynptrhoecetiscs, fwueldsescurpibpelythecmhaaiin tieschenxoplologriecdal, aanndaolypzeirnagtintghcehagrascteqruisatilcitsy, crheeqmuirceaml renatcstifonrs,aafendfureelcseintjepctriognreinssthinemnaattueraiallgsaasngdrideavnicdefcuoenlficeglulsr,atthioenstsofroargtehaelteenrhnanticvems aendt otfhepiroacpepssliceaffiticoinens,cayn.dAtnheeexftfeencstsivoefftohceugsaisscdoimrepcotesdititooneolnecctoromcbhuemstiocnalepmroiscseiossnsianncdesealefectyroolyfzeenrds- aupspeeaprptoliabnectehse.mostpromisingandcost-effectivetechnologieswithzero-carbonemissions. Moreover, the technology readiness level (TRL) and the leading worldwide pilot and demonstration plants a2r.eHoeuattli-ntoe-dG.aIsndReoeudt,epserformances,costsandavailabilityofproductiontechnologiesarerelatedto the maturity of the generation route. The conversion of solar radiation realizes thermochemical solar fuels via concentrated solar Finally, the green synthetic fuels supply chain is explored, analyzing the gas quality requirements power (CSP) technologies into heat that is needed to carry out high temperature reactions. The main for safe fuels injection in the natural gas grid and fuel cells, the storage alternatives and their applications, thermochemical processes that exploit only renewable and abundant resources without GHG and the effects of the gas composition on combustion emissions and safety of end-use appliances. emissions are water thermolysis and thermochemical cycles that need only water, carbon dioxide and concentrated solar power. Other thermochemical routes for solar power production (steam 2. Heat-to-Gas Routes reforming, cracking and gasification) require fossil fuels as raw materials [67]. In this review, only The conversion of solar radiation realizes thermochemical solar fuels via concentrated solar the two emission-free processes are analyzed. power (CSP) technologies into heat that is needed to carry out high temperature reactions. The main thermochemical processes that exploit only renewable and abundant resources without GHG emissions 2.1. Solar Water Thermolysis are water thermolysis and thermochemical cycles that need only water, carbon dioxide and concentrated Solar water thermolysis consists of a single-step direct thermal decomposition of water solar power. Other thermochemical routes for solar power production (steam reforming, cracking molecules into hydrogen and oxygen carried out by the exploitation of concentrated solar power. The and gasification) require fossil fuels as raw materials [67]. In this review, only the two emission-free chemical bond between oxygen and hydrogen requires high bond-dissociation energy. Therefore, the processes are analyzed. reaction is enhanced by high temperature above 2500 K to obtain a suitable product yield (at 1 bar and 2500 K the dissociation efficiency is approximately 10%) [68]. Solar radiation is first collected and 2.1. Solar Water Thermolysis concentrated using a concentrated solar power collector. The required concentration ratio of CSP is Solar water thermolysis consists of a single-step direct thermal decomposition of water molecules of the order of 10,000, and the incident solar energy required is of the order of 10 MW (reached with into hydrogen and oxygen carried out by the exploitation of concentrated solar power. The chemical parabolic dish concentrator, double-concentration systems or solar tower with a heliostat field) [69]. bond between oxygen and hydrogen requires high bond-dissociation energy. Therefore, the reaction is The thermolysis reactor is a refractory nozzle in which the liquid water flows continuously and is enhanced by high temperature above 2500 K to obtain a suitable product yield (at 1 bar and 2500 K vaporized and dissociated. The high temperature needed for the reaction requires the use of special the dissociation efficiency is approximately 10%) [68]. Solar radiation is first collected and concentrated materials such as oxide ceramics including yttria, zirconia and magnesia [70]. The dissociation is using a concentrated solar power collector. The required concentration ratio of CSP is of the order of partial, and the output depends on temperature and pressure. The process can be summarized by the 10,000, and the incident solar energy required is of the order of 10 MW (reached with parabolic dish overall endothermic reaction [71]: concentrator, double-concentration systems or solar tower with a heliostat field) [69]. The thermolysis HO ↔xH O+ xOH+xO+xH+xH +xO (1) reactor is a refractory nozzle in which the liquid water flows continuously and is vaporized and dissocTiahtedm.eTthoedhsiguhsetdemfopretrhaetuerneenregeydterdanfsofretrhteorweactteironmroelqecuuirles tahre:u(si)ebouflskpheeciaatlinmgaotefrwiaalstesruvcahpaosr oixnidaefucerrnaamceiccsaivnictlyudwinitghyattfrliuai,dzitrucbounilarawndalml;a(giin)edsirae[c7t0c]o.nTthaectdoisfscooclidativoanpiosrpwaritihala,ahnodttshoeliodultapyuetrPDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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