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(~90%) [454,495]. Ablative pyrolysis reactors involve high pressure between biomass and reactor wall. The high heat transfer and short residence time enhance the liquid yield [496,497]. Rotating- cone pyrolysis reactors employ centrifugal force to press feedstock particle against reactor walls [498,499]. Finally, in vacuum pyrolysis reactors the feedstock is pyrolyzed under vacuum conditions (3.5–10 kPa) and do not require a carrier gas. The heating rate and the residence time are slow; Energies 2020, 13, 420 37 of 96 therefore, the solid yield is high [500,501]. Fiigurre 17.. Layout of Ensyn RTP ((rapiid tthermall processiing)) ffastt pyrrollyssiiss pllantt.. The process iis based on tthe conttactt bettween driied biiomass and hot sand which rapidly fragments the biomass into gas, v va ap po orr a an nd d c ch ha arrcco oaal l. . C Co on nd de en ns sa ab blle e g ga as se es s a ar re e q qu ue en nc ch he ed d, , p prro od du ucci in ng g b bi io o o oi il l a an nd d iin nc co on nd de en nssa ab bl lee g ga ass. . C Ch ha ar r andsandareheattediinassecondvessell:: hot sand is recirculated to the pyrolysis reactor,,whereasgas and flflyassharreediiviideediinaaccyccllonee,,aandflfulueeggaassisisrreeccirirccuulalateteddtotoththeeddrryyeer.r. Flash pyrolysis: as fast pyrolysis, the process is used to maximize the liquid yield. The heating 4.3. Gasification rate is very high up to 10,000 ◦C/s, the temperature ranges from 450 ◦C to 1000 ◦C, and the residence The gasification process thermochemically converts char and heavier hydrocarbons into gas or time is very short (<0.5 s). If the heating process is carried out at a temperature above 650 ◦C with liquid with a lower molecular weight, such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The gasification subsequent rapid quenching, the main product is bio oil (up to 75%), and char and gaseous products reaction is an endothermic process that requires high temperatures (higher than 1200 °C). Typically, are minimized. Higher temperature favors the gaseous product formation [480]. The minimization the energy required to sustain the process is provided by partial oxidation of solid pyrolysis products of the exposure of particles to low intermediate temperatures that promote the coke formation is (mostly char) in a medium (oxygen, air, steam, hydrogen or combinations of these). The partial crucial. Therefore, either small particles (above 0.2 mm) is required or a very fast heat transfer only to oxidation involves fuel consumption, either fossil fuel for allothermal gasification or up to 30% of the particle surface [476,481]. biomass feedstock in autothermal gasification [502]. Onay et al. [482] compare slow, fast and flash pyrolysis of rapeseed to determine the effects of A viable alternative to the partial combustion is represented by sensible solar heat concentrated parameters including temperature, heating rate, particle size and sweep gas flow rate, Kan et al. [483] to a gasifier fed by only steam [503]. Avoiding the partial oxidation, the product syngas is not analyze pyrolysis product properties and the effects of biomass pre-treatment and reaction properties, contaminated by combustion products such as NOx and SOx, CO2 emissions are erased, and biomass including reaction atmosphere and vapor residence time. Mahinpey et al. [484] propose a modified devolatilization kinetic model based on the thermogravimetric analysis. 4.2.2. Pyrolysis Reactors Typical pyrolysis reactor configurations have been reviewed by numerous authors [469,475,481,485,486]. Fixed-bed pyrolysis reactors are normally characterized by slow heating rate and long residence time which denote slow pyrolysis process and provide intimate contact between fuel particles [487–489]. Fluidized-bed reactors provide a high heat transfer and uniform temperature fluidizing the bed with inert gas, usually recycled flue gas. Biomass feedstock needs to be fragmented and is fed into a bed of hot sand or other solids. Two types of fluidized-bed reactors are mainly used: the bubbling bed reactor and the circulating bed reactor. The former requires particle size less than 2–3 mm, an operating temperature of 500–550 ◦C and a residence time of 0.5 s and results in a high bio oil yield. The latter presents continuous recycling of solid matter with an external loop for the circulation of hot fluidizing media between the combustor and the pyrolysis reactor. Particle size is smaller (1–2 mm), and the superficial gas velocity is higher [490–494]. Ultra-rapid pyrolysis reactors provide short residence time (70–200 ms), relatively low temperature (650 ◦C) and high liquid yield (~90%) [454,495]. Ablative pyrolysis reactors involve high pressure between biomass and reactor wall. The high heat transfer and short residence time enhance the liquid yield [496,497].PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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