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Energies 2020, 13, 420 42 of 96 as an alternative clean-up process as is effective in the removal of tar, but the lifetime is short, and costs are high [539]. Gasifier type and other variables including biomass feedstock, gasification agent, bed materials also influence the tar yield. The updraft gasifier produces a gas with high tar content (50 g/Nm3) since pyrolysis products are removed without passing through the reduction and the combustion zone and primary tar conversion into the gaseous product is low. In the downdraft gasifier pyrolysis products are forced to pass through the reduction and combustion zone enhancing the tar conversion into gases (<20 g/Nm3). The fluidized bed gasifier has a high conversion efficiency of the carbon content from biomass so that the tar yield is lower (5–20 g/Nm3 for bubbling and 1–5 g/Nm3 for circulating fluidized bed reactor) [540]. Secondary methods involve post-treatments gas clean up that also removes other undesired traces. After the gas cooling typically at 20–60 ◦C, a conventional gas process is used: the cold wet gas cleaning that includes wet cyclones, wet filters, wet scrubbers and wet precipitators to remove particulates, tar and condensed alkali metals. Chemical solvents (MDEA) or physical solvents (Selexol and Rectisol) may withdraw acid gas (H2S and CO2) and inorganic components. Adsorption, absorption or cryogenic membranes are also used for CO2 removal and amine unit for H2S and COS removal [45]. Conventional clean-up technologies are thermally inefficient and produce wastewater sludge. An alternative is the dry hot-gas cleaning, more efficient and reliable, usually used before gas cooling with the temperature between 200 and 500 ◦C. Ceramic or catalytic candle filters and metallic filters remove solid contaminants, safeguard filter or catalyst remove fluid contaminants by sorbents chloride and other traces components [541,542]. 4.5. Technology Readiness Level The thermal conversion of biomass through pyrolysis and gasification is a mature technology. The IEA BioEnergy Agreement Task 33 database [543] reports the current status of gasification facilities and plants concerning technology readiness level (TRL), technology type, input and output of the facilities and additional information, including partners and a technology brief. The Country Reports analyze the status of biomass gasification of 16 countries: Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Turkey and the United States. Among the gasification plants for the fuel synthesis, there are 14 pilot plants (TRL 4–5) whose production ranges between 1 and 100 m3/h—half of which are operational. The first pilot plant was realized in 1985 by NREL in the United States and is still in operation. The gasifier is capable of producing a variety of products including biogas, syngas, chemicals and hydrogen from a lignocellulosic feedstock [544]. Nine demonstration plants (TRL 6–7) with a production capacity between 100 and 1000 m3/h are reported in the database. Two demonstration plants are idle, four are operational, two are under construction, and one is planned. Only one over the seven first-of-a-kind commercial demonstration plants (TRL 8) is operational. The plant converts organic residues, and waste streams in fuel synthesis such as ethanol (30,000 t/y), methanol and other chemicals. Whereas, among the five commercial plants (TRL 9), three are planned (two in Sweden and one in the U.S. is scheduled for 2019), and the others are idle. Most of these plants are realized to produce liquid fuels (mainly Fischer Tropsch liquids, methanol and ethanol). Only three facilities are supposed to produce gaseous fuels (synthetic natural gas). The one in operation began in 2003 in Canada. The pilot plant is realized by Enerkem in collaboration with the University of Sherbrooke for the processing of municipal solid waste and residuals from forest and agricultural industries. The outputs are cellulosic ethanol (375 t/y), methanol (475 m3/y) and SNG for the transportation sector [545]. In the Netherlands, the MILENA gasifier, developed by ECN, has produced clean syngas (200 m3/h) since 2009 from wood and waste in a pilot plant. Nowadays, ECN with the partnership of Gasunie and Royal Dahlman has planned the realization of a demonstration plant for the generation of SNG (300 MW) [546]. In the United Kingdom, Go Green Fuels Ltd. In partnership with Cadent, Advanced Plasma Power and Progressive Energy and CarbotechPDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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