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Energies 2020, 13, 420 56 of 96 However, at a pressure above 150 bar, the content of higher hydrocarbons can increase dramatically due to compressor oil carry-over. Therefore, rich gas (i.e., gas with a high hydrocarbon content) is compressed at a pressure below this limit [699]. The energy consumed for compressed natural gas is approximately 40% lower than that required for liquefy the gas. However, the gas compression generates heat thus are required multistage and intercooler that increase the operational and maintenance costs [700]. Hydrogen Hydrogen is compressed at a pressure between 200 and 700 bar (20–60 kg/Nm3). The energy consumption for compression is up to 15% of the energy content of hydrogen (high hydrogen isobaric specific heat) and clearly, increase with pressure [701]. Tanks for vehicle fuel are subjected to hydrogen embrittlement of steel and gas leakage through the sealant. These problems are also encountered in the natural gas pipeline, but in tanks are enhanced by the higher pressure. Thus, restriction to 2% of the hydrogen volume fraction is currently imposed on tanks for vehicle fuel [634]. Moreover, the selection of suitable materials for vessel walls is crucial. The most common solution is a four-layer structure. The internal layer is a high-density polymer coating that covers the aluminum-alloy tank structure. Externally is applied a protective layer of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic coated by a shock-absorbing protective layer of fiberglass [702]. 5.5.2. Liquefied Gas Storage The gas liquefaction is a viable way to store and transport with ships or tracks the gas where the gas pipelines are not available (e.g., transport across the oceans). However, the process is costly because of high energy consumption, the need for expensive cryogenic catalysts, well-insulated containers and refrigerated transport, and safety issues. Moreover, the liquefied gas has to be regasified before local distribution [703]. Commonly, vessels are constituted by two concentric shells (primary and secondary barrier) to contain leakage. Between shells is placed an insulator layer or vacuum is generated to avoid thermal losses [704]. Natural Gas Natural gas is liquefied by cooling at temperatures below −162 ◦C at atmospheric pressure. The volume is approximately 600 times lower than that of the gas at room temperature [700]. Natural gas is liquefied through compressions and intermediate cooling. At the last step, the gas is enthalpically expanded in a throttle valve and the temperature decreases due to the Joule-Thompson effect generating liquid phase. The cooled gas not liquefied is recirculated [703]. Hydrogen Hydrogen is liquefied at −253 ◦C at ambient pressure. The volumetric density of the stored gas reaches 70 kg/m3, but the energy consumption for the liquefaction process of hydrogen is up to 30% of the lower heating value [701]. Thus, hydrogen is generally liquefied only when a high storage density (e.g., aerospace applications) is required. The cryogenic cycle adopted for natural gas liquefaction is not suitable for hydrogen because the inversion temperature is above the room temperature. Therefore, hydrogen is commonly precooled with liquid nitrogen or helium before the first expansion step, and further expansion units with intercooling are required [705]. 5.5.3. Gas Solid Storage Gas can be stored into materials via two pathways: the physical adsorption (physisorption) in porous solid materials and the chemisorption in solid structures. The main advantage is that the molecular desorption of the stored gas occurs only when energy input is supplied [706].PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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