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Energies 2020, 13, 420 Table 3. Technology readiness level, energy conversion efficiency, fuel production cost and CO2 emissions of hydrogen and syngas generation routes. 60 of 96 TRL TRL Description Energy Conversion Efficiency [%] 45–60 (cold gas efficiency of energy conversion to syngas) [757] 60–70 [759,760] 65–80 [528,761] 10 [68] 17(CY 2015 case assuming 70% ZnO dissociation and heliostats cost of 126.5$/m2)–21 (CY 2025 case assuming 85% ZnO dissociation and heliostat cost of 90$/m2) [762] 19 [149] 3–5 (solar to fuel efficiency demonstrated in single-junction devices based on low cost thin-film materials)12–16 (solar to fuel efficiency demonstrated in tandem devices based on high-quality crystalline semiconductors) [441] PV Wind 20–24 (photovoltaic efficiency of 20% and the wind power efficiency of 40% multiplied Production Cost [$/kgfuel] 1.17 (2000 dry tons/day plant using forest residues)–1.33 (2000 dry tons/day plant, straw-based biohydrogen) [758] CO2 Emission [kgCO2 /kgfuel ] 1.10–1.61 [758] - - - - - - - 11.5 (NREL TEA calculation assuming 90% hydrolysis efficiency) [766] - (No CO2 emissions if the CO2 conversion efficiency is 100%) Note No pilot plant, more attention for two-step thermochemical cycles Further research on reactor materials, quenching of products, separation of reactants and solar concentration technologies Pilot plants planned for next few year Three planned first-of-a-kind commercial demonstration plants (10-20-700 MWel) Three planned first-of-a-kind commercial demonstration plants Planned the first commercial plant (20 MWel) Pilot plants are mostly fed by domestic wastewater Two planned demonstration plants of 10 MW (MeGa-StoRE project) Biomass gasification Air Steam Oxygen 4–9 • 14 pilot plants • Nine demonstration plants • Seven first-of-a-kind commercial demonstration plants Thermolysis Two-step Thermochemical cycle (ZnO/Zn) Three-step thermochemical cycle (S–I) Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cell Electrolysis Alkaline electrolyzer PEM electrolyzer Solid oxide electrolyzer Microbial electrolyzer CO/CO2 methanation Five commercial plants 1–3 Laboratory scale 7.98–8.40 [34] 6.07–4.18 [763] 5.01–4.68 [763] 11.4 [315,764] • • 4 kWth ETH • 50 kWth CSIRIO 4–7 • 100 kWth PSA • 100 kWth PROMES-CNRS • 750 kWth HYDROSOL 1–4 Scale-up of PEC reactors PV Wind 3–6.7 [765] • 83 pilot plants 7–9 • 16 demonstration plants 10–12 for the electrolyzer efficiency: AEC 50%–60%, PEMEC 55%–70%, SOEC 40%–60%, MEC 78% [178]) 1.8 (forecasted production cost of hydrogen in 2050 through water electrolysis using electricity from PV or offshore wind)–4.3 (hydrogen production cost in 2020 through water electrolysis using electricity from PV or offshore wind) [765] 2.83–4.17 [767] • 68 pilot plants 4–8 • 16 demonstration plants 11–14 • 150 kWel Sunfire GmbH 3–5 • 120 kWel GrinHy 8–12 • 2.5 L scale-up device • 1000 L pilot plant 1–4 • Other semi-pilot plants 15.5 (>100 L) • 6 MWel beta-plant • 6 MWel WOMBAT 5–7 • 20 MW GoBiGas 74–82 [606] • Store&GO (IT 200 kW, CH 700 kW, DE 1 MW) 22–28 16–24 31PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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