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Energies 2020, 13, 420 61 of 96 The first step of the synthetic natural gas catalytic routes provides syngas as an intermediate product. It is carried out with three main technologies: from biomass feedstock through gasification or from water and carbon dioxide resources via co-electrolysis or thermochemical cycles. The second step consists of the upgrading of the intermediate products by CO or CO2 methanation. The pyrolysis and gasification are well-developed processes (TRL 4–9), and also commercial plants were constructed. The conversion efficiency of biomass gasification is higher than that of processes derived from water and carbon dioxide feedstock (co-electrolysis and thermochemical cycles). Moreover, gasification is a more cost-effective way to generate syngas. However, the partial oxidation generates CO2 emissions that could be avoided by solar-driven gasification. The hydrogen supply chain can follow different pathways such as the on-board storage in tanks for road mobility, the transport through dedicated pipelines, and the injection in existing pipelines blended with natural gas. Commonly hydrogen is fed in fuel cells for electric power or CHP conversion or employed in typical natural gas facilities (e.g., burners, industrial processes). Instead, synthetic natural gas can be stored on-board for vehicle application or injected in the natural gas grid and then burned or used in fuel cells. The gas composition of synthetic fuels is a crucial issue for gas grid injection, storage and end uses. Thus, the transition from natural gas to hydrogen requires compatibility with high pressure and distribution networks and end-user appliances. Indeed, gas quality affects burner and gas turbine operations resulting in higher polluting emissions, flame instability and unsafe. Further, gas engines are subjected to high knocking propensity. Moreover, non-combustion applications are sensitive to the gas composition that can impact on process safety and efficiency. Furthermore, the hydrogen injection in the natural gas grid is a crucial issue since it impacts the transport capacity and pipeline properties. Indeed, a higher amount of hydrogen is needed to satisfy the same energy requirement due to the low energy density, and the mechanical properties of steel pipelines are degraded by hydrogen embrittlement that promotes crack propagation. Moreover, leakage and leakage detection are challenging issues in hydrogen transportation since the hydrogen quickly permeates seals and plastic pipes due to its small size, high diffusivity and low viscosity. The odorants and gas sensors commonly used for natural gas odorization and detection are not suitable for hydrogen sensing. It has been established that an admixture of hydrogen and natural gas with a hydrogen concentration up to 10% by volume can generally be injected into the natural gas grid with no significant problems of safety and efficiency. However, the maximum hydrogen volumetric content tolerated in the natural gas transmission system is between 5% and 15% in the United States and between 0.1% and 12% in Europe. Therefore, more efforts are required to clearly understand the effects of hydrogen injection in the natural gas blend to establish a validated limit of hydrogen concentration to overcome the inhomogeneities of gas grid injection legislations. PEM fuel cells suffer gas contaminants such as CO, H2S and ammonia that deteriorate the catalytic efficiency of electrodes and membranes. Instead, solid oxide fuel cells performances are affected by H2S and halogens poisoning, siloxane and carbon deposition and ash pore-blocking. Finally, fuel storage provides a high energy density, large size, and long-term storage capacity. Liquefied gas storage requires high energy consumption, expensive cryogenic catalysts and well-insulated vessels. Albeit the volumetric density of compressed gas storage is lower than that obtained with liquefaction, also the energy consumption is reduced. The chemical absorption of hydrogen in solid materials is an intrinsically safe alternative. Indeed, thermal energy supply is necessary for the gas desorption since it involves endothermal processes. Instead, underground gas storage allows a large amount of natural gas to be stored, providing a solution for short- and long-term storage. However, the storage into underground porous rocks is not suitable for hydrogen due to its consumption by sulfur-reducing bacteria, whereas salt caverns are compatible with hydrogen.PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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