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the necessary energy density, weight, and volume requirements. Therefore, there is a critical necessity to maintain a large volume of hydrocarbon chemicals and fuels in the foreseeable future, while the challenge is to change to a more sustainable material and energy feedstock for their production. The chemicals and fuels created using fluctuating solar-driven renewable energy sources (e.g., electricity from photovoltaics or wind turbines) are commonly referred to as solar fuels. The reagents for solar fuels in the future should be naturally occur- ring and abundant (H2O, N2, and CO2) and originally in (thermodynamic) equilibrium with our environment. A well-known example is the production of hydrogen using renewable energy sources, which can for instance be produced through the electrol- ysis of water13 or via direct photo-electrochemical water splitting.14–16 For any solar fuel to make a substantial contribution to our future energy system, the scale-up and integration potential of a particular processing route is crucial. Only when deployed at scales significant when compared to the size of the global energy system (~TW) will a technology have a notable impact on the energy transition. At present, how- ever, the creation of high energy density chemicals and fuels using renewable electricity remains both technically and economically out of reach as compared to current fossil-fuel routes. The majority of demonstrations using renewable electricity for power-to-fuels has been hydrogen production via water electrolysis (green hydrogen), where a large number of plants <100 kW have been examined.17 The largest planned hydrogen plants operating on intermittent renewable electricity as of 2019 are on the <10 MW scale (see REFHYNE, Germany; HyBalance, Denmark; and H2Future, Austria). The number of academic studies and commentaries on carbon-based solar fuels, almost all inspired by the problem of large-scale solar energy storage, has grown significantly in recent years as indicated by the large number of recent reviews.18,19 One of these routes uses electrochemical reduction of CO2, also known as CO2 elec- trolysis, as the primary conversion technology. Because of the relative maturity of the field, however, most studies in CO2 electrolysis focus on solving problems that play out on nano-, micro-, or mesoscopic scales, i.e., the development of new catalysts, supports, and membranes.20–23 However, with the final application and global scales in mind, it is important to start considering scales from meters to many kilo- meters in the analyses, which includes the capture and delivery of reactants and rele- vant conditions needed for a usable final product.24,25 These analyses are imperative for determining at what point CO2 reduction catalysts, supports, and membranes have been sufficiently developed in the lab and are ready to be developed further into commercial technologies, which requires a different research methodology. Additional research efforts can then be shifted toward the broader technological application and the complicated process of complete system design, integration, and optimization,25–27 while defining new operating conditions for ongoing funda- mental studies. Finally, a back-of-the-envelope determination of the physical scales of sub-processes that will be required to run an oft-discussed solar fuel plant using CO2 electrolyzers is extremely valuable to put into perspective what is required of researchers, governments, and industry for this technology to contribute to the energy transition within a reasonable timeframe. In this perspective, we provide a high-level analysis of a process that uses CO2 elec- trolyzers to convert atmospheric CO2 into solar fuels using renewable electricity. The goal of this work is to clearly elucidate the physical scales and energy requirements of CO2 electrolyzers within an industrial-scale plant. By doing so, we hope to provide a physical and tangible end goal for current CO2 electrolyzer research that motivates 1Department of Chemical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HZ Delft, the Netherlands 2AquaBattery B.V., Lijnbaan 3C, 2352CK Leiderdorp, the Netherlands 3Shell Global Solutions International B.V., Grasweg 31, 1031 HW Amsterdam, the Netherlands *Correspondence: w.smith@tudelft.nl https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.009 Joule 3, 1822–1834, August 21, 2019 1823PDF Image | Pathways to Industrial Scale Fuel from CO2 Electrolysis
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