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4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.1. Conclusions of the Study The case studies presented here show that today’s zero emission powertrains can meet the propulsion power and energy storage requirements of a wide range of vessels, from small passenger ferries and fishing boats to the largest cargo ships in the world. The powertrains examined were battery-only, fuel cell systems with hydrogen stored as a gas, and fuel cell systems with hydrogen stored as a liquid. The high energy storage density of liquid hydrogen tanks (1.3 kWh/L) compared to gaseous hydrogen tanks (0.36 kWh/L) and battery systems (~0.09 kWh/L) made liquid hydrogen-based systems the most capable in terms of its ability to meet a wide variety of vessel sizes and mission requirements. Longer endurance missions favored hydrogen fuel cell systems because of this. As endurance increases the energy component of the system increases. For fuel cell systems this is just the fuel tank; the fuel cell itself remains constant at the level needed for the power. For battery systems the entire battery system size must increase even though the power level is constant. Since the energy density of battery systems is less than 1/10 that of liquid hydrogen, battery systems quickly become much larger than hydrogen systems as stored energy demand increases. However, an interesting phenomenon was observed for small vessels requiring high power for short durations: the fuel cell systems were not able to meet the volume requirements while the battery system was. This was found to be due to the size of the fuel cell system. For a high- power system that does not require a lot of stored energy, a battery-only system can meet both the power and energy requirements with just the batteries whereas the hydrogen fuel cell system also requires a large fuel cell to convert the hydrogen to power. The fuel cell size dominates over the battery size in these instances. The study also showed that the available volume of the vessel is what constrained all systems. Available volume was shown to be correlated with overall ship displacement and a series of charts was produced to enable vessel designers to quickly determine the approximate suitability of different zero emission powertrain options based on the vessel size and energy requirements of the mission. The mass of the powertrain was never a limiting factor, but one aspect of system mass deserves mention. The specific energy (J/kg) of hydrogen is about 3-times that of maritime liquid fossil fuels (HFO, IFO, MDO, and diesel). Even considering the added mass of the hydrogen tank, the fuel system on board a vessel powered by hydrogen can be significantly lighter than one powered by liquid fossil fuel. This can translate to lower power requirement, and it can also lead to higher cargo capacity. Regarding the latter, the capacity of a cargo ship is based on the draft, which is a function of displacement, which depends on the on-board mass of systems and cargo. If the fuel system takes up less of the total displacement then the ship can transport more containers. Also, if the fuel cell and hydrogen fuel takes up more volume but less weight, the net result may be no change in cargo-carrying capacity. 65PDF Image | Regenerative Fuel Cell
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