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also constrain techniques for addressing other pollutants12. hydrogen and in particular ammonia have the potential to address carbon emissions13, however the technology and supply chains for hydrogen are not currently commercially developed, with higher costs than some competing options14. The maritime industry has already identified the significant potential for ammonia as a green fuel for shipping, noting its ease of storage, existing networks and flexible use in both fuel cells and combustion engines15. Aviation fuels In 2018, domestic and international aviation emitted 2.4% of global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions and is experiencing rapid growth16, with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) forecasting a doubling of global passenger numbers to 8.2 billion by 203717. To tackle the carbon emissions of new aircraft, dramatic improvements in energy efficiency of between 16% and 40% have been achieved18. A range of other advances is envisaged to achieve the target of 75% carbon dioxide overall reduction19. however, these developments are unlikely to be sufficient, 12. Op.cit.,note8 13. Op. cit., note 3 14. Op. cit., note 4 15. Op. cit., note 3 which has led to alternative propulsion technologies being considered, including electrification. This will be contingent on achieving battery energy densities significantly beyond those achievable today20. The range, speed, and need to accommodate freight capacity required for civil aviation requires a highly energy dense fuel such as kerosene. Other liquid fuels with lower carbon intensities exist and can be utilised in aviation for example liquefied natural gas (LNG), however many present significant challenges in for example containment, safety and the need to develop new fuel handling arrangements21. Several non-fossil fuels exist for aviation, including aviation biofuel blends. For example, Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) made from bio-derived oils, can be used as a drop-in fuel for commercial aircraft at a blend of up to 50% with traditional kerosene. There are agreed non-fossil fuel standards covering the technical suitability of jet fuel and five technical production pathways have been certified22. With the increasing pace and degree of ‘defossilisation’ of aviation fuel, it is possible aircraft will be required to operate on higher percentage blends of alternative fuels than currently allowed for in the existing standards. 16. International Air Transport Association. 2018 Fact sheet: climate change and CORSIA. See https://www.iata.org/ pressroom/facts_figures/fact_sheets/Documents/fact-sheet-climate-change.pdf (accessed 14 June 2019). 17. International Air Transport Association. 2019 20-year passenger forecast. See https://www.iata.org/publications/store/ Pages/20-year-passenger-forecast.aspx (accessed 14 June 2019). 18. Sustainable Aviation. 2018 Sustainable Aviation CO2 Roadmap. See https://www.sustainableaviation.co.uk/wp- content/uploads/2018/06/FINAL__SA_Roadmap_2016.pdf (accessed 17 April 2019). 19. Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation in Europe (ACARE) Flightpath 2050 20. Roland Berger. 2017 Aircraft Electrical Propulsion – The Next Chapter of Aviation? See https://www.rolandberger.com/ en/Publications/New-developments-in-aircraft-electrical-propulsion-(Ch).html (accessed 17 April 2019). 21. Roberts R, Nuzum SR, Wolff M. 2015 Liquefied Natural Gas as the Next Aviation Fuel. Propulsion and Energy Forum. (doi: 10.2514/6.2015-4247). 22. ASTM International. Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized hydrocarbons – ASTM D7566. See https://www.astm.org/Standards/D7566.htm (accessed 17 April 2019). SuSTAINABLE SYNThETIC CARBON BASED FuELS FOR TRANSPORT – POLICY BRIEFING 13 INTRODUCTIONPDF Image | Sustainable synthetic carbon based fuels for transport
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