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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 1: Introduction Table 2. Physical properties of hydrogen Property Hydrogen Comparison Density (gaseous) 0.089 kg/m3 (0°C, 1 bar) 1/10 of natural gas Density (liquid) Energy per unit of mass (LHV) Specific energy (liquefied, LHV) Ignition range Ignition energy 70.79 kg/m3 (-253°C, 1 bar) 120.1 MJ/kg 8.5 MJ/L 4–77% in air by volume 0.02 MJ 1/6 of natural gas 3x that of gasoline 1/3 of LNG 6x wider than methane 1/10 of methane Boiling point -252.76°C (1 bar) 90°C below LNG Energy density (ambient cond., LHV) 0.01 MJ/L 1/3 of natural gas Flame velocity 346 cm/s 8x methane Autoignition temperature 585°C 220°C for gasoline Notes: cm/s = centimetre per second; kg/m3 = kilograms per cubic metre; LHV = lower heating value; MJ = megajoule; MJ/kg = megajoules per kilogram; MJ/L = megajoules per litre. What are the health and safety considerations? Like other energy carriers, hydrogen presents certain health and safety risks when used on a large scale. Safety considerations and incidents can slow, or even prevent, the deployment of a new energy technology if the risks are not well communicated and managed. CCUS is a salient example, and lithium-ion batteries have also faced concerns. On the other hand, the health and safety impacts of established energy products – gasoline, diesel, natural gas, electricity, coal – for consumers are familiar and rarely questioned, showing that risks – including flammability, presumed carcinogenicity and toxicity – can be managed to the satisfaction of users. As a light gas of small molecules, hydrogen requires special equipment and procedures to handle it. Hydrogen is so small it can diffuse into some materials, including some types of iron and steel pipes, and increase their chance of failure. It also escapes more easily through sealings and connectors than larger molecules, such as natural gas. Chapter 3 discusses the considerable potential for use of existing natural gas infrastructure despite these issues. Hydrogen is a non-toxic gas, but its high flame velocity, broad ignition range and low ignition energy make it highly flammable. This is partly mitigated by its high buoyancy and diffusivity, which causes it to dissipate quickly. It has a flame that is not visible to the naked eye and it is colourless and odourless, making it harder for people to detect fires and leaks. There are already many decades of experience of using hydrogen industrially, including in large dedicated distribution pipelines. Protocols for safe handling at these sites are already in place, and they also exist for hydrogen refuelling infrastructure in site-specific forms. However, they remain complex and unfamiliar compared to those for other energy carriers. Widespread use in the energy system would bring new challenges. They would need further development and any public concerns would need to be alleviated. The health and safety considerations of most hydrogen-based fuels and feedstocks are familiar to the energy sector. The exceptions are ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs, discussed in Chapter 3), which have only recently been seriously considered for potential use in the energy system. Ammonia generally raises more health and safety considerations than hydrogen, and its use would probably need to continue to be restricted to professionally trained operators. It is highly toxic, flammable, corrosive, and escapes from leaks in gaseous form. However, unlike hydrogen, it has a pungent smell, making leaks easier to detect. It is also a PAGE | 35 IEA. All rights reserved.PDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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