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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 2: Producing hydrogen and hydrogen-based products Technology options Figure 20. Various pathways exist to convert hydrogen into fuels and feedstocks that can be more easily handled, transported and used. Ammonia can be produced by combining hydrogen and nitrogen, and synthetic hydrocarbons, such as methane, methanol, diesel or jet fuel, can be produced by combining hydrogen with carbon in the form of CO2. However, for pathways based on electrolytic hydrogen, much of the electricity used to convert hydrogen into fuels and feedstocks is lost during the process of conversion (Figure 20). Outputs and losses of different pathways for hydrogen-based fuels and feedstocks from electrolytic hydrogen Notes: ASU = air separation unit (for nitrogen production); DAC = direct air capture; GWh = gigawatt hour. The energy contents of the outputs (methane, methanol, diesel and ammonia) are based on their LHVs. For methane, methanol and diesel, DAC has been assumed here as the source of CO2 feedstocks, with electricity needs of 250 kWh per tCO2 for low-temperature DAC (DAC low) and 1 750 kWh per tCO2 for high-temperature DAC (DAC high). Low-temperature DAC also requires heat of 1 535 kWh per tCO2, which could be covered in large part by the shown synthesis heat losses. Source: IEA 2019. All rights reserved. Around 45–60% of the electricity used for the production of synthetic hydrocarbons or ammonia is lost during the process. Ammonia Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen and therefore does not generate CO2 emissions when combusted. It is a gas at normal temperature and pressure, but can be liquefied at -33°C, a temperature that is not too difficult to reach. Liquid ammonia has a 50% higher volumetric energy density than liquid hydrogen. Ammonia has been used as a refrigerant for 170 years, and as a chemical feedstock for nitrogen fertilisers and explosives for a century. Industry is used to storing and transporting it, including in oceangoing tankers. Ammonia can, in principle, be used as a fuel in various energy applications (e.g. for co-firing in coal power plants), but none of these applications is being commercially used today. The toxicity of ammonia means that its handling requires care and would likely be limited to professionally trained operators, potentially restricting its techno-economic potential. Ammonia has been made with hydrogen from electrolysers running on hydropower and nitrogen from ASUs since the 1920s, with a few plants in Norway feeding the entire European demand for nitrogen fertilisers (IEA, 2017). New projects are, however, now underway to PAGE | 56 IEA. All rights reserved.PDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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