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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 2: Producing hydrogen and hydrogen-based products Fischer-Tropsch [FT] synthesis)13 to raw liquid fuels and, with further upgrading, into synthetic diesel or kerosene. FT synthesis is relatively slow and requires costly investment. Synthetic methanol: Methanol is the simplest alcohol. It has an energy content equal to 19.9 megajoules per kilogram (LHV) and a 80% higher energy density than liquid hydrogen. As a liquid it is easily transportable, like other common petroleum fuels. It is as toxic as common liquid petroleum fuels, but unlike them it is not carcinogenic or mutagenic. Methanol is soluble in water and is biodegradable, and its production from synthesis gas is fully commercial. Around 40% of global methanol production today is used for energy purposes, but methanol can also be used as the building block for synthesising a range of chemicals, e.g. for the production of plastics. Significant amounts of electricity and generation capacity are required for the production of synthetic hydrocarbons because of the low overall efficiency of production processes. Around 1 000 TWh and 700 TWh of electricity would be needed as input for synthetic hydrocarbons to provide just 1% of current global oil and global gas production respectively, representing around 4% and 3% of global electricity generation in 2018. This would require 600 GW and 400 GW of solar PV capacity at a capacity factor of 20%, or 340 GW and 230 GW of onshore wind capacity at a capacity factor of 35%. The production of synthetic hydrocarbon from hydrogen uses CO2 as input, which can be derived through various means (Box 6). In Werlte in Germany, for example, a plant with an electrolyser capacity of 6 MWe has been producing 300 m3 per hour of synthetic methane since 2013, with CO2 being provided by a biogas plant. A synthetic liquids plant for methanol production has been operating in Iceland since 2012 with an electrolyser capacity of 6 MWe and a methanol output of 4 000 tonnes per year. The required CO2 is captured from a geothermal power plant. Box 5. CO2 sources for synthetic hydrocarbons The production of methane or liquid hydrocarbon fuels and feedstocks from hydrogen often uses CO2 as input. For example, replacing today’s global fossil kerosene demand of 2 600 million barrels per year completely with synthetic kerosene would require 1 gigatonne of carbon dioxide (GtCO2) per year. If the synthetic hydrocarbon fuel is combusted, this CO2 is again released to the atmosphere (assuming the combustion process is not equipped with CCUS). From a climate perspective, the source of CO2 is therefore vitally important. One option is to acquire CO2 produced from the combustion of fossil fuels, or from various industry plants offering more concentrated CO2 streams such as in cement production. Although the CO2 is based on fossil fuels, its utilisation can contribute to CO2 reduction as, in principle, each carbon molecule is being used twice: the carbon contained in a fossil fuel is used to produce energy or in an 13 FT synthesis is a fully commercial process. Several large-scale plants converting coal or natural gas via FT synthesis into liquid fuels are in operation. The largest coal-to-liquid plant has operated since the 1980s in Secunda, South Africa, with a capacity of 160 000 barrels per day (bbl/d). The largest gas-to-liquid plant has operated in Qatar since 2011 at 140 000 bbl/d. PAGE | 58 IEA. All rights reserved.PDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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