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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 5: Opportunities for hydrogen in transport, buildings and power Figure 63. 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Levelised electricity generation costs for load balancing from natural gas and hydrogen USD 175/tCO2 USD 100/tCO2 USD 50/tCO2 USD 25/tCO2 Fuel costs OPEX CAPEX GT NG CCGT NG CCGT H2 FC H2 GT H2 Notes: GT = gas turbine; CCGT = combined-cycle gas turbine; FC = fuel cell; NG = natural gas. CAPEX = USD 500/kW GT, USD 1 000/kW CCGT without CCS and hydrogen-fired CCGT, USD 1 000/kW FC. Gross efficiencies (LHV) = 42% GT, 61% CCGT without CCS and hydrogen-fired CCGT, 55% FC. Economic lifetime = 25 years for GT and CCGT, 20 years for FC. Capacity factor = 15%. More information on the assumptions is available at www.iea.org/hydrogen2019. Source: IEA 2019. All rights reserved. Whether hydrogen-based power generation for load balancing can compete on price against natural gas depends on regional hydrogen, natural gas and CO2 prices. Large-scale and long-term storage The integration of increasing shares of VRE sources in the electricity system requires a more flexible electricity system. High shares of renewables can create a need for long-term and seasonal storage, for example to provide electricity during periods of several days with very little wind and or sunshine. Hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels (such as methane, liquid organic hydrogen carriers [LOHCs] and ammonia produced from electricity via electrolysis) are potential options for long- term and large-scale storage of energy. Salt caverns are the best choice for the underground storage of pure hydrogen because of their tightness and low risk of contamination. Alternative underground hydrogen storage options such as pore storage and storage in depleted oil and gas fields are also being investigated. Converting electricity into methane via power-to-gas is a further long-term storage option, and one which could take advantage of the existing transport and storage infrastructure for natural gas. Around 70 power-to-gas projects to produce methane are in operation today, most of them in Europe (Chapter 2). Storing electricity in the form of ammonia is another long-term and large-scale storage option. Large steel tanks are already commonly used in the fertiliser industry for storing ammonia. Hydrogen-based storage options suffer from low round-trip efficiency: in the process of converting electricity through electrolysis into hydrogen and then hydrogen back into electricity, around 60% of the original electricity is lost, whereas for a lithium-ion battery the losses of a storage cycle are around 15% (Figure 64). Pumped-hydro storage facilities offer one alternative: they have been used for more than a century to store electricity for relatively long periods. Batteries offer another alternative, although they are unlikely to be used for long-term and large-scale storage because they suffer from self-discharge and because of the immense number of batteries that would be needed for large-scale storage. A single large refrigerated PAGE | 158 IEA. All rights reserved. USD 3/MBtu USD 7/MBtu USD 11/MBtu USD 3/MBtu USD 7/MBtu USD 11/MBtu USD 1.5/kgH2 USD 2/kgH2 USD 3/kgH2 USD 1.5/kgH2 USD 2/kgH2 USD 3/kgH2 USD 1.5/kgH2 USD 2/kgH2 USD 3/kgH2 USD/MWhPDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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