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Sensors 2021, 21, 3119 4 of 23 2. Related Work A usual way to assign a cryptographic identity to a device is to assign it a private cryptographic key. Since secure non-volatile memories are expensive, a simple way of storing private keys in low-cost IoT devices is the use of internal eFuses or one-time programmable memories. However, this solution does not maintain private keys as secret but only provides data integrity, i.e., its contents cannot be modified but can be read. In fact, in the case of IoT devices using old versions of ESP32 microcontrollers, it was shown in [20] that, by injecting voltage glitches into the microcontroller, the protection of the keys could be bypassed and intended secret data stored in eFuses could be read. A more recent and low-cost solution to identify devices is the use of PUFs. The blockchain-based proposals in the literature that consider PUFs to identify IoT devices do not employ NFTs explicitly. In [21], the challenge–response pairs provided by PUFs were employed for counterfeit detection of components of IoT devices. The manufacturer, using the generated PUF-based unique identifier, registers each device component in the blockchain with a smart contract. PUF-based unique identifiers and ownership transfer records were also employed in [22,23] to establish integrated circuit traceability. In [24,25], instead of storing the PUF response directly in the blockchain, the registered manufacturers store a cryptographic hash of the device identifier so that any end-user can verify the authenticity of the device if its associated hash is present in the blockchain. Theoretically, PUFs produce the same response with high probability. However, PUF responses can be affected by system noise and environmental conditions (such as temperature and voltage variations). Hence, cryptographic hash functions cannot be applied directly to PUF responses to obtain a reliable identifier. The ISO/IEC DIS 20897 [26] specifies the methods that can be employed to alleviate noise and generate non-stored cryptographic parameters from PUFs. Usually, fuzzy extractors apply error correcting codes to PUF responses to obfuscate and recover cryptographic keys without bit errors. Fuzzy extractors are employed in authentication protocols that verify that only the authentic device is able to recover the cryptographic key from the obfuscated stored data. In this way, in [27,28], the authentication procedure of an IoT device was based on checking if the cryptographic key is correctly recovered by the PUF. In [27], optical PUFs were employed in private blockchains. In [28], SRAM PUFs inside microcontroller-based devices were employed in zero-knowledge protocols. Only the public keys generated by the devices are stored in the blockchain. The blockchain simplifies the management of the device public keys and reduces the complexity of maintaining a central database. Instead of PUFs, hardware security modules (HSMs) were employed in [29] to generate cryptographic keys for IoT devices. In [30], an HSM was included in each vehicle of a blockchain-based vehicle sharing platform. The HSM is utilized to generate randomly a pair of a public and a private key. The private key is used to sign transactions and the BCA address of the vehicle is derived from the public key. Two ERC-721 tokens are employed, one of them is owned by the vehicle and the other is owned by the user of the vehicle. However, an onboard HSM is more costly and complex for an IoT device than an intrinsic silicon PUF. In addition, an HSM does not generate a physical link with the device. Hence, we prefer the use of PUFs to establish a low-cost root of trust from which a private key and then the BCA address of the IoT device can be generated, as in [16]. Instead of using several ERC-721 tokens, as in [29], we prefer to introduce smart tokens, which extend the ERC-721 tokens and allow using fewer tokens in the applications. Different Ethereum improvement proposals (EIPs) have extended the ERC-721 NFTs to allow for more versatility in certain use cases [13]. An example is the ERC-1155 Multi Token Standard, which allows combining fungible and non-fungible tokens in the same token. Other proposals in draft status are the EIP-2981, proposed to handle royalty payments, and the EIP-2615, to support mortgage and rental functions. The draft EIP-1948 introduces a non-fungible token that has dynamic data, that is, data that can change during the lifetime of the token. However, none of these extensions of ERC-721 tokens are addressed for IoT devices that can interact actively with the blockchain. The extension of the ERC-721PDF Image | Binding IOT to Smart Non-Fungible Tokens Using PUF
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