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Sensors 2021, 21, 3119 10 of 23 R of length n. To reconstruct SKDEV, HDDEV is XORed with a fresh PUF response R’ and, later, it is applied to it the decoding algorithm of C. In this form, the private key is not stored anywhere, and only the genuine device can recover it. SRAM PUFs are employed in this work since SRAMs can be found in the majority of IoT devices and no additional hardware is required to be included or implemented. Hence, these types of PUFs have a low cost. Basically, an SRAM cell is formed by six transistors, four of which are used as two cross-coupled inverters and two of which are used as access transistors. A write operation can force the output value toward 0 or 1 depending on the applied input. However, if the cell is powered up and no external signal is applied as input, the output value of the cell (known as the start-up value) is fixed by the inverter that begins to conduct. This outcome is unpredictable without having direct access to the cell since it depends on the transistor mismatching determined by random variations of the semiconductor fabrication process. The start-up value of the cell is not necessarily the same between different power-ups due to the presence of noise. This bit flipping is generally unwanted when the SRAM cell start-up value is used in the PUF response, since the PUF reproducibility is reduced and the complexity of the error correction code raises accordingly. To mitigate this, the solution explained in [32] is used herein, which only employs the most stable cells to generate the SRAM PUF response. If the resulting SRAM PUF responses show some bias, a debiasing algorithm has to be considered. The unbiased stable cells after this classification process are named ID cells. Using these ID cells, a simple repetition error correction code works correctly, as shown in [16,32]. Unlike ID cells, which show stability in several power-ups, there are cells that are very unstable by nature and their start-up values vary greatly. These cells can be used as a TRNG, as explained in [33]. In this work, these cells, named as RND cells, are used as a source of entropy for the generation of the IoT device private keys employed for the BCAs and for the generation of the nonces employed in the communication protocols. As illustrated in Figure 2, prior to create the token, the manufacturer challenges the SRAM PUF of the IoT device. The IoT device carries out the cell classification from which the IDMASK and RNDMASK are generated. With the application of the RNDMASK, the start-up values of the RND cells are obtained and then employed as input to a hash function that outputs the private key. The device BCA address, device, is derived from the application of a public key generator to the private key. With the application of the IDMASK, the ID cells are obtained. The Helper Data HDDEV is the result of applying an XOR operation to the start-up values of the ID cells and the codeword associated to the private key. Then, the IoT device sends IDMASK, RNDMASK, HDDEV, and device to the manufacturer. The manufacturer creates the smart NFT with the transaction associated to the function createToken by indicating the owner and device BCA addresses. Once the smart NFT is created, the manufacturer receives the tokenId and programs the device. It is assumed in this work that the SoC (system on a chip) acting as the processing core of the IoT device contains a small one-time programmable (OTP) memory, e.g., a ROM, and a larger non-volatile memory (NVM), e.g., a flash or SD card. The manufacturer writes a very small piece of data and code (the zero-stage bootloader ZSB, the manufacturer public key PKMAN, and the tokenId) in the OTP memory and most of the data and code (the first- stage bootloader FSB, the kernel of the operating system OSMAN, and the firmware needed to interact with the blockchain FWBC, including the IDMASK, RNDMASK, and HDDEV) in the NVM. Since the NVM is not tamper-proof, all the data stored in it are signed with the manufacturer private key SKMAN. In the OTP memory, the tokenId is stored, since it represents the logical and immutable identity of the smart NFT associated with the device. In addition, the zero-stage bootloader is stored together with the manufacturer public key PKMAN and the code needed to verify the signatures.PDF Image | Binding IOT to Smart Non-Fungible Tokens Using PUF
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