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Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW Sensors 2021, 21, 3119 15 of 23 14 of 23 memory and the signature SIG(OSMAN, SKMAN) stored in the external non-volatile meemooryry..IfIfththeevveerrifiificcaattioionnisisssuccceesssffull,,ttheekeerrnelloffttheoperrattiingsysttemttakestthe ccoonntrtorollooffththeeIoIoTTddeevvicicee.. The kernel OS launches FW , after verifying it, so that the device can interact The kernel OSMMANANlaunches FWBCB,Cafter verifying it, so that the device can interact 3. 3. with the blockchain using its own BCA address. To do this, the FW reconstructs the BC with the blockchain using its own BCA address. To do this, the FWBC reconstructs the private key. The tuple {ID , HD } is read from the external NVM, and the start- MASK DEV private key. The tuple {IDMASK, HDDEV} is read from the external NVM, and the start- up values of the ID cells determined by the IDMASK are read from the on-chip SRAM. up values of the ID cells determined by the IDMASK are read from the on-chip SRAM. Later, the start-up values are XORed with the HDDEV, and the repetition error decode Later, the start-up values are XORed with the HDDEV, and the repetition error decode is applied. Once the private key is reconstructed, the public key is derived and the is applied. Once the private key is reconstructed, the public key is derived and the IoT device is able to generate its BCA address from it. Using the device BCA address, IoT device is able to generate its BCA address from it. Using the device BCA address, the device checks if the tokenId saved in its OTP memory is the one associated with the device checks if the tokenId saved in its OTP memory is the one associated with its BCA address in its smart NFT. With this checking, the device proves its hardware its BCA address in its smart NFT. With this checking, the device proves its hardware authenticity. Then, the device retrieves the rest of its NFT attributes, such as its owner authenticity. Then, the device retrieves the rest of its NFT attributes, such as its owner and user BCA addresses and its state, and it updates its timestamp. Depending on the and user BCA addresses and its state, and it updates its timestamp. Depending on NFT state, the device executes the code associated with the Waiting for owner, Engaged the NFT state, the device executes the code associated with the Waiting for owner, En- with owner, Waiting for user, or Engaged with user operating modes. If the device is gaged with owner, Waiting for user, or Engaged with user operating modes. If the device already engaged with an owner, the signature SIG(SWOWNER, SKOWNER) is verified is already engaged with an owner, the signature SIG(SWOWNER, SKOWNER) is verified with the owner public key PKOWNER, which is related to the owner BCA address. If with the owner public key PKOWNER, which is related to the owner BCA address. If the the verification is successful, the application SWOWNER is executed. In addition, if verification is successful, the application SWOWNER is executed. In addition, if the de- the device is already engaged with a user, the user application SWUSER is verified vice is already engaged with a user, the user application SWUSER is verified with the with the retrieved user BCA address and the signature SIG(SWUSER, SKUSER). If the retrieved user BCA address and the signature SIG(SWUSER, SKUSER). If the verification verification is successful, the application SWUSER is executed. These applications are is successful, the application SWUSER is executed. These applications are executed con- executed concurrently to FWBC, which periodically consults and updates the device currently to FWBC, which periodically consults and updates the device token. The token. The shared secrets can be employed to interchange confidential data. shared secrets can be employed to interchange confidential data. Zero Stage Bootloader, ZSB Manufacturer Figure 5. Proposed secure boot process of the IoT device. Figure 5. Proposed secure boot process of the IoT device. 5. Proof of Concept with ESP32-Based IoT Devices and Ethereum Blockchain 5. Proof of Concept with ESP32-Based IoT Devices and Ethereum Blockchain A proof of concept was developed on the basis of a Pycom Wipy 3.0 board as IoT A proof of concept was developed on the basis of a Pycom Wipy 3.0 board as IoT device (which includes an Espressif ESP32 microcontroller as the main SoC) and the device (which includes an Espressif ESP32 microcontroller as the main SoC) and the pub- public Ethereum blockchain. ESP-IDF was employed to develop the required device lic Ethereum blockchain. ESP-IDF was employed to develop the required device function- functionalities, Remix was employed to develop the smart contract of the smart NFT, alities, Remix was employed to develop the smart contract of the smart NFT, and three and three DApps (Decentralized Applications) were created for the roles of manufacturer, DApps (Decentralized Applications) were created for the roles of manufacturer, owner, owner, and user, as detailed below. and user, as detailed below. 5.1. Firmware Verification and Blockchain Account Generation from SRAM PUFs 5.1. Firmware Verification and Blockchain Account Generation from SRAM PUFs The proposed secure boot process explained in Section 4.3 lasts longer than a non- The proposed secure boot process explained in Section 4.3 lasts longer than a non- secure process since hash operations and signature verifications introduce some overhead. secure process since hash operations and signature verifications introduce some over- We used the verification algorithm with the secp256k1 curve of the micro-ecc library to head. We used the verification algorithm with the secp256k1 curve of the micro-ecc library verify the manufacturer signatures and the SHA512 function to hash the code to be verified, to verify the manufacturer signatures and the SHA512 function to hash the code to be taking advantage of the SHA accelerator included in the ESP32 microcontroller. The time it Smart NFT First Stage Bootloader, FSB Operating System Kernel, OSMAN Blockchain Firmware, FWBC Owner Software, SWOWNER User Software, SWUSERPDF Image | Binding IOT to Smart Non-Fungible Tokens Using PUF
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