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Sensors 2021, 21, 3119 16 of 23 Table 7. Execution times of the main operations performed by the IoT device. Operation Execution Time (ms) 3.8 × 105 0.41 2.02 166.6 2.5 165.7 1.60 21.15 0.45 26.10 2.90 52.65 Private key obfuscation Shared secret generation Zero-stage boot Private key reconstruction BCA address generation Blockchain transaction SRAM cells classification 32-byte private key generation (RND mask and hash application) ID mask application, repetition error correction code and XOR operation Product of the private and public keys Hashing 15–17 KB Signature verification ID mask application, XOR operation, and repetition error correction code 64-byte public key generation (secp256k1 operation) 20-byte BCA address creation (Keccak256 operation) Message preparation (creation of JSON structure and signature) Transfer to Infura blockchain API Transaction completion Once the FWBC is uploaded to the device, the helper data are XORed with the start-up values of the SRAM cells identified by the IDMASK. Using the 8-bit error repetition decoder, the private key is recovered. Since our proof of concept uses the Kovan testnet Ethereum blockchain, the curve secpt256k1 is needed to obtain the 64-byte public key. The Trezor library was used for the curve secpt256k1 (instead of the micro-ecc library used in the boot process). This library was used to improve the computing times obtained with the micro- ecc library (14.08% reductions in the execution times were achieved). This acceleration is possible because the Trezor library saves precomputed data on Flash memory. This option is not possible in the boot process because internal OTP memories tend to be small and the precomputed values require a significant amount of storage. The BCA address is generated as the rightmost 160 bits of the Keccak hash of the public key. The SHA3 library from Trezor library was used for the Keccak hash. An Ethereum API is required by the Wipy board to interact with the blockchain. In this proof of concept, Infura [38] was employed as the blockchain gateway. In the Infura free version, the iterations with blockchain are limited to 100,000 requests per day, which is more than enough for our proof of concept. To use Infura, the gateway should be registered and configured. Once the Infura project is created, a project ID and a project secret are generated. Selecting the endpoint as Kovan Ethereum testnet, the URL of the API was generated using HTTPS. Figure 6 shows the configuration of our proof of concept and the Wipy board. For security reasons, we modified the project secret and the project ID. The interaction between the Wipy board and Infura should employ JSON (Java Script Object Notation) format in the messages. Although this format is a standard derived from JavaScript exchange messages to minimize data size, it is currently used in any language indistinctly. In the case of the Wipy boards, the cJSON library was employed to construct JSON structures in C language. The interaction with the blockchain or smart contract should use a remote procedure call (RPC) protocol encoded in JSON (JSON-RPC). All the available methods in Ethereum using JSON-RPC from Infura can be found in [39]. We took the proper methods from this source. Table 7 shows the execution times obtained with the Wipy board, concerning private key obfuscation and reconstruction, BCA address generation, and blockchain transaction. The transaction completion time, measured as the total time from the private key reconstruction to the transfer of a message to the blockchain API, can be short enough for many applications.PDF Image | Binding IOT to Smart Non-Fungible Tokens Using PUF
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