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Sensors 2021, 21, 3119 21 of 23 References 6. Conclusions The solution proposed in this work guarantees the trustworthiness of the hardware and software of IoT devices from manufacturing until end-user application. The proposed smart non-fungible tokens (NFTs) extend the attributes defined by the ERC-721 standard (token identifier and owner BCA address) to also include the device and user BCA ad- dresses, the states associated with the operating modes of the device, public data related to secrets shared with its owner and user, and time information about the last link checked between the token and the device. The gas consumption of the smart contract functions defined for the token (developed in Solidity) is given. The function to create the token is the costliest because it saves all the information to generate the token, while the gas consumption of the smart contract functions defined for checking and updating the link with the device is much smaller. The IoT device is able to generate and recover its BCA in a trusted way from its hardware through a PUF and executes a secure boot that ensures it consults its smart NFT periodically. In this way, the device is physically bound to its Smart NFT because the token identifier stored in its one-time programmable memory matches the device BCA address recovered and stored in the token. In addition, secure communication channels can be established between devices, owners, and users. In the proof of concept developed with a Wipy 3.0 board (which includes an ESP32 microcontroller), the internal SRAM of the ESP32 microcontroller was employed as a PUF. The time needed to complete a transaction was 52.65 ms, considering the recovering of the 32-byte private key, the 64-byte public key regeneration, the 20-byte BCA address for Ethereum, the message preparation, and the transfer to Infura blockchain API. Concerning the secure boot process of the device (which is based on hash operations and signature verifications), the time is dominated by the signature verification (the ESP32 microcontroller has a SHA accelerator). The time to verify a signature was 165.7 ms (using secp256k1 curve and the micro-ecc library). The time needed to generate a shared secret was 166.6 ms (using the Trezor library). These times are good for many applications. In order to complete the demonstrator, DApp (Decentralized Application) interfaces were created for the roles of manufacturer, owner, and user of the devices. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, all authors; methodology, I.B.; software, J.A. and R.R.; validation, I.B. and R.A.; formal analysis, I.B.; investigation, all authors; resources, J.A. and R.R.; data curation, all authors; writing—original draft preparation, all authors; writing—review and editing, all authors; visualization, J.A.; supervision, I.B.; project administration, I.B. and R.A; funding acquisition, I.B. and R.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work was supported in part by FEDER/Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación—Agencia Estatal de Investigación, _TEC2017-83557-R and _RTC-2017-6595-7 and in part by FEDER/Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades, de la Junta de Andalucía under Project AT17_5926_USE and Project US-1265146. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. 1. Pal, S.; Rabehaja, T.; Mukhopadhyay, S. Security requirements for the internet of things: A systematic approach. Sensors 2020, 20, 5897. [CrossRef] 2. Novo, O. Blockchain meets IoT: An architecture for scalable access management in IoT. IEEE Internet Things J. 2018, 5, 1184–1195. [CrossRef] 3. Dhananjay, S.; Jong-Hoon, K.; Madhusudan, S. Blockchain Technologies; Springer Nature: New York, NY, USA, 2020. 4. Longo, R.; Podda, A.S.; Saia, R. Analysis of a Consensus Protocol for Extending Consistent Subchains on the Bitcoin Blockchain. Computation 2020, 8, 67. [CrossRef] 5. Sun, T.; Yu, W. A Formal Verification Framework for Security Issues of Blockchain Smart Contracts. Electronics 2020, 9, 255. [CrossRef] 6. Al-Rakhami, M.S.; Al-Mashari, M. A Blockchain-Based Trust Model for the Internet of Things Supply Chain Management. Sensors 2021, 21, 1759. [CrossRef]PDF Image | Binding IOT to Smart Non-Fungible Tokens Using PUF
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