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Wind farm Fig. 1. CAES configuration: Conventional CAES, wind farm, and combined and simple cycle gas turbines are utilized to meet the electricity demand. Heat-only- boilers (HOB) satisfy the heat load of a district heating network. Wind-based electricity is the sole energy source to charge the underground compressed air storage facility. GT similar to the conventional system. One should note that a low pressure, low temperature thermal energy storage (TES) unit can also be used to store the excess compression heat for later use. However, this additional component is not considered in this paper for the sake of simplicity. 2.2. Inputs and simulation model We model a planner who aims to minimize the levelized (capital and fuel) cost of satisfying a variable electric and heat load over the period of one full year (or maximizing net social welfare). Following is a description of various inputs and assumptions made to establish this optimization problem. 2.2.1. Simulation resolution and period High penetration of intermittent wind energy affects the elec- tric grid in three different time scales: minute-to-minute, intra- hour, and hour- to day-ahead [22]. Since the primary application of compressed air energy storage plants is bulk energy storage (arbitrage and load leveling applications), an hourly resolution was chosen for this study. This approach is in agreement with some of other studies in the field of economic assessment of com- pressed air energy storage systems to support wind energy [12,22,23]. One should note that CAES plants can provide a range of ancillary services in electricity markets in addition to the pri- mary duty of energy arbitrage and load leveling. CAES plants can provide frequency and voltage control services (in seconds time scale) and ramping services (in minutes time scale) in addition to the load following application considered in this study [25]. How- ever, the economic value of these services highly depends on the market in which they are offered; therefore, these services were not included in this study and only energy arbitrage was consid- ered as the primary role of energy storage plants. In order to capture the diurnal, weekly, and seasonal changes in wind energy, electric load, and heat load, the system was modeled over a period of one full year. Both the heat and electric loads are to be satisfied at each hour over the entire simulation period. 2.2.2. Heat load District heating networks have the ability to supply heat to dif- ferent types of heat loads (single houses, office towers, hospitals, etc.). However, an ideal heat load for district heating networks would be a concentrated load (e.g. downtown core) because of the relatively high capital costs associated with heating pipelines in district heating systems with low heat intensity. Therefore, a large concentrated heat load (three times as the heat load of the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada) was chosen for this study. HOB The heat load of this university experienced a peak and average hourly value of 48.4 and 21.4 MW thermal in the year 2011. Since the heat load of the University of Calgary is currently satisfied with a district heating network, this load can be a good representation of a concentrated municipal heat load supplied by a district heating network. 2.2.3. Electric load The electric load profile used in this study is based on the peak electric load profile of the province of Alberta in the year 2011 re- ported by the Alberta Electric System Operator (AESO) [26]. Alber- ta’s hourly peak load was scaled down to simulate a large electric load with an hourly peak and average load of 1000 MW and 516 MW, respectively. The size of the electric load was chosen arbitrary to represent a real world load. The system planner would choose the optimal size and dispatch strategy of the plants to sup- ply the electric load throughout the simulated period. One should note that system of study was assumed to be ‘‘congestion free’’ and the only geographical constraint in the model was the distance H. Safaei et al. / Applied Energy 103 (2013) 165–179 169 Municipal electric/ heat load HOB Heat Comp Turb Fig. 2. DCAES configuration: the compression train of the compressed air energy storage facility is located within the city. Compressed air is pipelined to the storage facility outside the city where both the underground storage and expansion train are located. The heat of compression is recovered by a heat recovery unit (HRU) to satisfy the concentrated heat load in conjunction with the heat-only-boilers (HOB) of the district heating network. Wind farm Comp Cavern Electricity Compressed Air Heat Municipal region HRU GT Municipal electric/ heat load Turb Cavern Electricity Compressed Air Heat Municipal regionPDF Image | 20 kW ORC Turbine Off-Design Performance Analysis
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