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H. Safaei et al. / Applied Energy 103 (2013) 165–179 173 Fig. 3. Performance of various components of the DCAES system over an arbitrary period at an emission tax of $60/tCO2e. Horizontal axis shows the period between Saturday, November 26 and Friday, December 2, 2011. ‘‘Used’’ and ‘‘Stored’’ in subfigure b represent the amount of wind energy that is used by the electric load and by the compressor of DCAES, respectively. Note wind energy is curtailed only when it exceeds the electric load and its storage is constrained by the capacity of the compressor (94 MW). ‘‘MW, e’’ and ‘‘MW, th’’ stand for MW electric and MW thermal respectively. 1000 500 0 1000 500 0 100 50 0 50 25 0 5400 3600 1800 b: Distribution of available wind c: Distribution of energy supplied to compressor d: Distribution of heat supply e: Energy content of the cavern Wind DCAES CCGT SCGT Used Stored Curtailed Wind Expander Boiler HRU a: Distribution of electricity supply 0 1 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 Hour Fig. 4. Maximum electric load and the optimal size of electricity generation fleet in the CAES configuration at various levels of emission tax. Wind and CAES do not enter the electricity market until emission tax of $10 and $40/tCO2e, respectively. 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Emission tax ($/tCO2e) Max electric load CCGT SCGT Wind Compressor Expander Fig. 5. Maximum electric load and the optimal size of electricity generation fleet in the DCAES configuration at various levels of emission tax. Wind and DCAES do not enter the electricity market until emission tax of $10 and $40/tCO2e, respectively. 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Emission tax ($/tCO2e) Max electric load CCGT SCGT Wind Compressor Expander emission taxes. On the other hand, the optimal size of the com- bined cycle gas turbine is smaller in the DCAES system. As a case in point, Table 3 compares these values for the two systems at a emission tax of $60/tCO2e. The larger sizes of the wind farm and energy storage plant (compressor, expander, and cavern) in the DCAES configuration can be explained by the revenues associated with heat recovery from the DCAES facility used to satisfy a portion of the heat load, especially at high emission taxes. However, the larger size of the less efficient SCGT and smaller size of the more efficient CCGT fleet in the DCAES system may look strange at the first glance. As will be discusses later in Section 3.2, SCGT has a low capacity factor (dispatched infrequently) at high emission Table 3 Optimal size of various system components for the CAES and DCAES configurations at an emission tax of $60/tCO2e. All values are in MW. CAES configuration DCAES configuration CCGT SCGT 456 47 377 95 Wind farm 965 1023 Expander Compressor 351 76 375 94 taxes; therefore, its lower capital cost would favor it over more efficient but more expensive CCGT. Size (MW) Size (MW) MWh MW, e MW, e MW, e MW, thPDF Image | 20 kW ORC Turbine Off-Design Performance Analysis
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