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H. Safaei et al. / Applied Energy 103 (2013) 165–179 175 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 Sold Stored Curtailed $0 $10 $20 $50 $60 $70 $80 $30 $40 Emission tax ($/tCO2e) Fig. 8. Distribution of available wind energy in the CAES configuration at various levels of emission tax. Sold category represents the portion of available wind that is utilized to satisfy the instantaneous electric load. A much smaller portion of the available wind energy is stored by the compressor of the CAES facility for later use (stored category). Note the absolute amount of wind energy that is curtailed increases at larger emission tax due to the increased size of the wind farm. 100% 40% 95% 90% 85% 80% $40 $50 $60 Emission tax ($/tCO2e) 30% 20% 10% 0% $70 $80 Fraction of heat supplied by HRU Utilization factor of available compression heat Fig. 10. Fraction of annual heat load supplied by the heat recovery unit (right axis) and percentage of recoverable heat of compression that is utilized by the heat load (left axis) in the DCAES configuration at various levels of emission tax. Note that the utilization factor of compression heat decreases at higher emission taxes since the size of the compressor (and therefore the available waste heat) increases while the size of heat load is fixed. 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 Sold Stored Curtailed $0 $10 $20 $50 $60 $70 $80 $30 $40 Emission tax ($/tCO2e) Fig. 9. Distribution of available wind energy in the DCAES configuration at various levels of emission tax. Note higher penetration of wind energy in this scenario compared to the CAES scenario. the small compressor size in both systems as shown in Figs. 4 and 5 and is due to the high operating cost of the storage facilities at high emission tax. Another observation is the higher availability of wind energy and the portion of it that is stored by the compressor of the energy storage facility in the DCAES scenario which is driven by revenues gained through waste heat recovery from the compressor of the DCAES plant. 3.4. Distribution of heat supply As discussed in Section 3.3, relatively higher compression energy in the DCAES system is an indication of the contribution of the heat recovery unit in supplying the heating load. The entire heat load is supplied by the conventional boilers at tax levels below $40/tCO2e since the size of the compressor and heat recov- ery unit are zero. As illustrated in Fig. 10, waste heat recovery from the compressor of the DCAES system negates fuel consumption of the boilers past this point and consequently reduces their share of annual heat supply so that 16.4% and 35.5% of the annual heat load is supplied by HRU at an emission tax of $40 and $80/tCO2e, respectively. Furthermore, this figure illustrates the percentage of available heat from the compression train of the DCAES plant that is utilized by the heat load (called utilization factor of compression heat). Recovery of waste heat of compression negates consumption of fuel for heating purposes and brings additional revenues for DCAES. Interestingly, this value remains very high (above 80%) as the size of compressor increases as more aggressive emission taxes are introduced (see Figs. 5 and 10). One should note that the level of contribution of the HRU to the heat supply is subject to the magnitude and fluctuations of both the electric and heat loads. In the system analyzed, the size of the electric load (maximum load of 1000 MW and average annual load of 516 MW electric) is relatively large compared to the heat load (maximum and average hourly heat load of 145.2 and 64.1MW thermal, respectively). These values inherently make heat recovery from the DCAES system more economic due to the relatively larger size of the electric load. This setting is in agree- ment with real world systems in which the typical size of power plants are in the range of a few hundred MWs while the size of centralized municipal heat loads are usually in the range of a few tens of MWs. Moreover, a thermal energy storage facility (short- and long-term) might increase the share of HRU in the annual heat supply (or at least lead to a smaller HRU and better economics for the DCAES system) which is not studied in this paper. 3.5. Cost of electricity Knowing the size and the hourly dispatch of the system compo- nents, the average cost of electricity at each effective fuel price was calculated for the two generation fleets considered in this study (one with the conventional CAES and one with the proposed DCAES system). This cost can be used to determine the cross-over point of emission tax: the tax level above which the DCAES system is eco- nomically superior to the conventional CAES configuration. The average COE of the DCAES system becomes less than the cost of the CAES system ($73.73 and $73.80/MWh, respectively) at an emission tax of $40/tCO2e (cross-over point with a pipeline length of 50 km) while the generation fleet is solely composed of wind farm and gas turbine prior to this point in both CAES and DCAES scenarios. The cost of electricity in the DCAES system remains low- er than the CAES system past this level of emission tax while their difference grows as the share of wind and energy storage facilities Distribution of available wind (TWh/year) Distribution of available wind (TWh/year)PDF Image | 20 kW ORC Turbine Off-Design Performance Analysis
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