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178 H. Safaei et al. / Applied Energy 103 (2013) 165–179 nual electricity generation rapidly increased as more aggressive emission taxes were introduced. This behavior shows that, in order to be competitive, relatively high taxes on GHG emissions would be required for compressed air energy storage plants (conventional CAES and new DCAES) with conventional gas turbines to be used to compensate for fluctuating electricity output from wind farms. Both the size and share of the wind farm and storage facility were larger in the DCAES configuration compared to the CAES system revealing the economic gains associated with the use of otherwise wasted heat of compression for heating applications. In other words, fuel savings gained from waste heat recovery in the DCAES system could justify building larger capital intensive but cleaner wind farms and storage facilities to support wind-based electricity. As a result, the emissions associated with a generation fleet equipped with DCAES instead of conventional CAES plants would be lower. The financial gains from the recovery of the otherwise wasted heat of compression outweighed the increased capital cost of the DCAES system past the cross-over point of $40/tCO2e. The fact that the average cost of electricity in both systems remained close revealed that a DCAES system could compete economically with conventional CAES plants in certain niche markets but the ex- act performance would depend on the nature of the electricity market under investigation. It bears mentioning the wide develop- ment of DCAES systems is likely to be firstly limited by the avail- ability of suitable geological formations in proximity of concentrated heat loads. Considering the size of the electric load (peak of 1 GW), size of simulated heat load (three times the size of University of Calgary), and optimal size of the expander of DCAES (28% of the peak electric load at an emission tax of $40/ tCO2e), the size of electric load rather than heat load is expected to be the second limiting factor. The authors also evaluated the sensitivity of the results to pipe- line length. The cross-over emission tax price for economic superi- ority of the DCAES system with a 100 km pipeline instead of the base-case length of 50 km was increased to the value of $50/tCO2e. This $10/tCO2e increase translates to an increase of $0.7/GJ of nat- ural gas price. However, the DCAES system becomes more compet- itive with the conventional CAES at shorter distances between the heat load (compression facility of the DCAES plant) and the storage site. The cross-over emission tax in a system with a shorter pipe- line length of 25 km is $30/tCO2e, corresponding to an effective natural gas price of $7.0/GJ at a base natural gas price of $5.0/GJ. Although the complex dynamics of the real world electricity markets were ignored in this study, the authors believe this assess- ment provides a high level insight into the possible economic gains from waste heat recovery for heating applications from com- pressed air storage plants. Due to the higher capital cost intensity of these facilities compared to conventional gas turbines, CAES and DCAES would not be able to compete economically with gas tur- bines under normal conditions in the real world. Aggressive GHG taxes or other economic incentives are required to compensate their higher capital costs which would obviously affect the already complicated market dynamics. Therefore, this simplified approach is not expected to cause significantly higher errors compared to the case in which future market dynamics were forecasted. A macro- level approach was chosen in this paper, as the first study to intro- duce and evaluate DCAES design, to inform the policy makers and assess the potential of DCAES in supporting higher penetration of wind energy into the electric grid in a carbon constraint world. The authors acknowledge the importance of detail engineering and design of DCAES plants based on the local policies and nature of electricity market to maximize the profit of the plant. In addi- tion, a thermal energy storage unit was not considered in the DCAES configuration for the sake of simplicity. As a result, the heat of compression could only be used to satisfy the instantaneous heat load. The economics of heat recovery from compressed air en- ergy storage facilities may improve if such thermal energy storage facilities are considered, especially for seasonal storage of waste heat.7 Finally, a generation fleet with lower pollution levels (e.g. NOx emissions) would benefit the neighboring communities through improved air quality, another benefit of the DCAES plants that could enhance their competitiveness with conventional CAES systems. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Eduard Cubi Monyanya from the Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC, Spain) and Mur- ray Sloan and Jim Sawers from the University of Calgary (Canada) for their valuable comments and help with heat load calculations. They also acknowledge useful technical discussions with Sean McCoy from the Carnegie Mellon University (USA) and Kenton Hei- del from Carbon Engineering Ltd. (Canada) regarding capital cost estimates of pipelines and boilers, respectively. Hossein Safaei gratefully acknowledges financial support from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) under a grad- uate scholarship program. References [1] World nuclear power plants in operation. Washington DC: The Nuclear Energy Institute; 2011. [2] US nuclear power plants. Washington DC: The Nuclear Energy Institute; 2011. [3] Robb D. Could CAES answer wind reliability concerns? Power 2010;154:58–61. [4] Statistics of wind energy in USA. Buc, France: The Wind Power.PDF Image | 20 kW ORC Turbine Off-Design Performance Analysis
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