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co-fired is limited due to fouling, agglomeration and corrosion. This is caused by ash composition in connection to the sulphur, chlorine, and phosphorous content of the biomass. The injection of biomass can be either separate from the coal (dedicated combustor) or together with the coal (using the same combustor). Another option is to fire the biomass in a separate boiler. The latter is rather an exception than common practice. Typical co-fire percentages in Europe range from 2 to 7% regardless of the installations capacity. 2.4.2 Commercial application in Europe In Europe 100 [10]- 250 coal-fired power plants have significant experience with co- firing biomass. Statistics on the amount of biomass in Europe are inconclusive and should be estimated: It is reported that 3.5 million tons [10] of coal are replaced by biomass co-firing in 2004 worldwide. Based on the fact that 100 of the 150 plants with co-firing experience are in Europe, the substituted amount of coal in Europe is estimated to be 100/150*3.5 = 2.3 million tons of coal. With an average electric efficiency of 35% and a caloric value for coal of 4.17 MWh/ton, the electricity generated by co-firing of biomass in coal-fired power plants in EU27 is 9.5 TWh per year. Co-firing percentages range from one percent up to about 20% (on energy basis). Currently, a percentage of 3–5% is most common in Europe. The co-firing percentage is mainly dictated by the coal mill capacity. Since the grindability of fine and dry material is superior to more fibrous and wetter material, wood pellets can be co-fired in higher percentages than wood chips of agricultural residues. Most power plants have boiler capacities ranging from 100 to 750 MWe. Major countries in co-firing are currently Germany, Finland and the UK. A wide variety of biomass materials, including herbaceous and woody materials, wet and dry agricultural residues and energy crops are used. 2.4.3 Efficiency and improvement opportunities The efficiency of coal-fired power plants in Europe is about 35%, while new state-of- the art plants reach 43% [22]. Plants in the lower efficiency range are typical older and operate with subcritical steam conditions while plants in the higher end of the efficiency range are newer and operate at supercritical steam conditions. Co-firing in moderate percentages has no significant effect on these efficiencies. The conversion efficiency is therefore higher than the average of dedicated biomass-to-electricity plants that operate with an efficiency of around 25%. Moreover, the specific investment is lower than dedicated biomass-to-electricity. Estimates range from 30- 500 €2006/kWe [10] to 1,000 USD2005/kWe [22]. The efficiency of coal-fired power plants is already optimized. Further optimization of the efficiency will be dictated by the economics of coal firing and not by the relatively low percentages of biomass. Optimization should therefore be realized in maximizing the co-firing percentage. The best option for that depends on the limiting equipment. In many cases, this is the coal mill. Since dry and small particle size biomass can be co-fired in higher percentages than wet and fibrous biomass, co-firing wood pellets can increase the co-firing EVALUATION OF IMPROVEMENTS IN END-CONVERSION EFFICIENCY FOR BIOENERGY PRODUCTIONPDF Image | Evaluation of improvements in end-conversion efficiency for bioenergy production
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