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20 Suresh Baral et al.: Existing and Recommended Renewable Energy Conversion Technologies for Electricity Generation in Nepal plants. In Nepal, most HPPs are the RoR type as it is economically feasible in such country. In addition, there is no damaged to the habitat and ecosystems residing in the constructed site of the HPPs. Nepal gives high priority to the progressive development of its vast hydro-potential and has plans to implement up to 3000 MW by 2016 with run-off-rivers but the future trends are heading towards storage schemes [14]. On the other hand, RoR HPPs in Nepal are facing the erosion of hydro-turbine components through the continuous flow of sand-laden river water. The total specific sediment yield of the country is approximately 4240 tons/km2/year and a detail analysis carried out by [15] showed that the sand particles damage the Pelton turbine’s needle and bucket, which reduced the overall power generation of HPP by 1.2 %. Therefore, it is now essential to address the sand erosion problems in Nepalese hydropower plants, where almost every hydropower plant is based on the RoR type. b) Micro-hydro power plant (MHP) Micro-hydro offers one of the most promising energy resources for long- term sustainable development in rural areas of Nepal. The hydropower technology applied to rural energy can be classified into mini-hydro, micro-hydro and Pico-hydro, based on the plant size. Typically, most turbines ranging from 1 kW to 100 kW are small in size and are easy transport, repair and maintain for rural areas of Nepal. Therefore, they have been adopted widely in Nepal. From the mid-1970s, these micro-hydro power plants were tested and installed in various parts of the rural areas with long-term funding from Swiss and German Aid [16]. Nepal has the potential to develop more than 50 MW of hydroelectric power from micro-hydro technology [6]. Few industries can manufacture the turbines needed for low power capacity, which Nepal uses to harnessing power on the few kW scale in rural areas of the country where there is no electricity. In addition, t For effectively utilization of the micro-hydro plant in rural areas, they are run by the local community, local entrepreneurs and local companies. Based on the location and remoteness of the districts, the Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC), a governmental organization, introduced a new policy for subsidies in the installation of micro-hydro plants. These introduction schemes became so popular that today Nepal has improved its rural electrification program. According to one report [7] the total micro-hydro installed in the fiscal year 2012/2013 was 3207 kW. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has set the target to install 15 MW of micro-hydro plants by 2013 in Nepal [2]. Another study [17] estimated that the normalized cost of electricity generation varies between 0.28 and 0.35 USD/kWh for a 25 kW plant, and between 0.25 and 0.3 USD/kWh for a 50 kW plant. Therefore, micro hydro plants are quite popular in Nepal because after installing of the plants in rural areas, it has positive impacts on the poor through improvements in children’s education, lighting, better communications through radio and television, increase in rural production, and improvements in the health conditions of the rural people. 3.3. Existing Solar Technology for Electricity Generation Nepal lies on the good solar belt making the application of solar power attractive. In Nepal, it has been estimated that there is more than 6.5 hours of sunshine per day with approximately 300 days with the average isolation lying between 4-5 kWh per square meter per day [18, 19]. On the other hand, the use of solar energy is not utilized effectively for electricity generation. The major electricity demand in Nepal is for lighting in remote areas. People in such areas generally light their homes with kerosene lamps [20]. The common use of solar energy for electricity is only limited to photovoltaic (PV) and is popular. The other uses of solar energy are for water pumping for drip irrigation and drinking, which appears to be technically and economically feasible. In addition, it is used widely for solar water heating in the hilly and Terai regions in the country. The other applications include the drying of agricultural products, such as herbs and vegetables, and a solar cooking system. On the other hand, the solar cooking is not effective because of the trends, and traditional eating and cooking habits using food cooked with kerosene and biomass products [18]. The average cost of the installation of solar PV in the county ranges from USD 244 to USD 880 depending on the size of the system, even though the cost can be sensitive to factors, such as inflation and devaluation of the national currency [21]. The country has improved its expansion each year progressively due to the subsidies and tax policy for rural electrification programs and schemes from Government of Nepal. Table 7 lists the number of households benefiting from these programs. Table 7. Proposed hydro plant for storage type in Nepal [32] he populations benefiting per kW of power of MHP is large compared to the grid connected population in urban areas. Therefore, the social value of Name of the Projects Madi Lower Jhimruk Nalsyau Gad Dudhkoshi Sunkoshi-3 Chera 1 Naumure Andhikhola Lower Badigad Kokhajor a. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Capacity (MW) 199 142 400 300 536 148 245 180 380 111 MHP is higher. Solar photovoltaic cells area promising and well established technology for converting sunlight to electricity. PV technologies can be installed for single users (off grid) or for multiple users (grid connected). In Nepal, the first PV module was adopted in 1963 in Bhadrapur Airport for navigational purposes [22]. The AEPC has categorized thePDF Image | Existing and Recommended Renewable Energy Conversion Technologies for Electricity Generation in Nepal
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