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Figure 9 is overlaid with exhaust power statistics from Figure 8 to provide an approximation of how much electricity a 10% efficient TE system could produce for each of the eight driving cycles. For a specific driving cycle, the ideal TE system size lies in the region where that driving cycle’s time-at-exhaust power statistic reaches a maximum with respect to the average electrical power contours. Figure 9 shows that, for the most waste-heat-intensive cycle (the highway fuel economy test, or HWFET), the 10% efficient TE system can produce at most Pelec = 4.1 kW electricity on average. Generating this level of electricity requires a TE system rated somewhere in the range of Pmax, TE sys ≈ 7 to 9 kW to capture enough of the high-speed and acceleration exhaust power peaks to make up for time spent at low speeds and/or idling. Sizing the TE system any larger generates incrementally less additional electricity. Figure 9 shows that relatively small amounts of electrical power are available in city driving situations as a result of limited waste heat and low TE system conversion efficiency. For a 10% efficient TE system, the least waste-heat-intensive cycle (West Virginia University, or WVU City) would produce Pelec ≈ 0.95 kW electricity, using a system of size Pmax, TE sys ≈ 6 kW. Extending these results to TE systems with various conversion efficiencies (ηTE sys = 5%, 10%, and 15%), Table 3 quantifies the amount of electrical power achievable for city, suburban, and highway driving cycles. Near-term TE systems could be 3% to 6% efficient, so it is clear that generating sufficient electricity to replace the Class 8 truck’s 0.7 kW alternator is not possible in the near term. Table 3. Average TE System Electrical Power for a Class 8 Truck under Different Driving Scenarios and TE System Conversion Efficienciesa Interstate driving Suburban driving City driving a. Ranges shown depend on the driving cycle. ηTE sys. = 5% 1.4-2.0 kW ηTE sys. = 10% 2.7-4.1 kW 1.5-2.1 kW 0.9-1.1 kW ηTE sys. = 15% 4.1-6.1 kW 2.2-3.1 kW 1.4-1.6 kW 0.7-1.0 kW 0.4-0.5 kW For a conventional, non-hybrid-vehicle platform with minimal onboard electrical energy storage and no backup generator other than the alternator, the amount of accessory-electrification possible will be constrained by how much electricity a combined alternator and TE system can rapidly generate under a worst-case situation of cold-start, city driving. A comparison of cold- and hot-start urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS) chassis dynamometer data sets for a Class 8 truck indicated that it takes about 8 minutes for the engine and exhaust system to warm up to pseudo-steady-state following a cold start (not shown). The effect of the cold start is thus approximated using an 8-minute slew rate from zero exhaust power to full exhaust power as predicted by the steady-state waste heat model. For TE system conversion efficiencies of ηTE sys = 5%, 10%, and 15%, Table 4 presents the amount of electrical accessories that can be powered reliably by a combined battery/alternator/TE system under the cold-start, city driving scenario mentioned earlier. In each case, the maximum rated power, Pmax, TE sys, is sized to provide good waste heat recovery on city driving cycles, as discussed for Figure 9. In the most realistic TE system scenario today—e.g., 5% efficiency—only 0.55 kW of the Class 8 truck’s 7.1 kW total accessory load can be electrified. Forty-three watt-hours of battery energy are required to partially power the 0.55 kW of electrical accessories for the first 10 to 12 minutes of city driving following a cold start. 12PDF Image | Feasibility of Thermoelectrics for Waste Heat Recovery in Conventional Vehicles
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