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PV cells are combined to make modules that are encased in glass or clear plastic. Modules can be aggregated together to make an array that is sized to the specific application (Figure 1). Most commercial PV cells are made from silicon, and come in three general types: monocrystalline, multicrystalline, and amorphous (Figure 2). Single crystal or monocrystalline cells are made using silicon wafers cut from a single, cylindrical crystal of silicon. This type of PV cell is the most efficient, with approximately 15% efficiency (defined as the fraction of the sun’s energy that is converted to electrical power), but is also one of the most expensive to produce. They are identifiable as having individual cells shaped like circles or rectangles. Multicrystalline or polycrystalline silicon cells are made by casting molten silicon into ingots, which crystallize into a solid block of intergrown crystals. The size of the crystals is determined mostly by the rate at which the ingot is cooled, with larger grains made by slower cooling. Cells are then cut from the ingot. Multicrystalline cells are less expensive to produce than monocrystalline ones, due to the simpler manufacturing process and lower purity requirements for the starting material. However, they are slightly less efficient, with average efficiencies of around 12%. Amorphous silicon PV cells are made from a thin layer of noncrystalline silicon placed on a rigid or flexible substrate. They are relatively easy to manufacture and are less expensive than monocrystalline and polycrystalline PV, but are less efficient with efficiencies of around 6%. Their low cost makes them the best choice where high efficiency and space are not important. Photovoltaic modules have been around for more than 50 years and have been mass- produced since 1979. Due to improvements in manufacturing technology and economies of scale, the cost of PV has fallen by 90% since the early 1970s. PV modules are now readily available in a wide range of sizes from several well established companies. The reliability of PV is such that 20- to 25-year power warranties are typical, with life expectancies beyond 30 years. PV arrays are installed so that they maximize the amount of direct exposure to the sun. That usually means placement in an area clear of shading from buildings and trees, in a southward direction, and at an angle equal to the latitude of the location. If the PV array is used seasonally, as with most water pumping systems in the northeastern US, then a solar tracker may be used to tilt the PV array as the sun moves across the sky. This increases daily energy gain by as much as 40% at New York latitudes. With more hours of peak sun, a smaller pump and power system may be used, thus reducing overall cost. Tracking works best in clear sunny weather. It is less effective in cloudy climates and on short winter days, and should not be used in windy areas. 2PDF Image | GUIDE TO SOLAR- POWERED WATER PUMPING SYSTEMS IN NEW YORK STATE
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