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312 New Developments in Renewable Energy η =η =1- TL (6) ideal Carnot TH For example, for an ORC power system using a geo-fluid extracted from a low-temperature geothermal heat source at 130 oC (403 K) and a heat sink (condenser) at 40 oC (313 K), the maximum ideal Carnot efficiency can be calculated using Eq. (6) to be approximately 22.3%. For an actual (irreversible) ORC-based geothermalsystem operating between the same tem‐ perature limits would have lower efficiency. Another measure of the performance of the low-temperature geothermal ORC power plant can be obtained using the Second-Law of thermodynamics in the form of exergetic efficiency, ηex , given as η = W ̇ out (7) ̇ ex Ex geo The exergetic efficiency in Eq. (7) is defined as the ratio of the actual net power output from the power generation system to the maximum theoretical power that could be extracted from the geo-fluid at the geothermal resource state relative to the thermodynamic dead- state. This involves determining the rate of exergy carried by the geo-fluid to the ORC pow‐ er system. Typically, the design and operation of geothermal binary power generation systems should be optimized in order to increase their thermal and exergetic efficiencies guided by the Carnot efficiency (Ismail, 2011b). 2.3. ORC-based low-temperature geothermal power generation: Environmental & economic aspects Geothermal power generation is relatively pollution-free and considered to be a clean tech‐ nology for power generation (Dickson & Fanelli, 2005) and it tends to have the largest tech‐ nological potential compared to other renewable energy sources used for power generation (Hammons, 2004). Once up and running, GHG emissions are typically zero when low-tem‐ perature geothermal energy reservoirs are utilized using ORC power systems, since all of the produced geo-fluid is injected back into the reservoir (Hammons, 2004). In this case, one of the effective ways of getting rid of hazardous chemical constituents of geothermal water (e.g. trace metals) is re-injection. ORC-based low-temperature geothermal power generation systems are far less environmentally intrusive than alternative power generation systems in several respects, e.g. they are essentially zero-GHG emission systems and have low land us‐ age per installed megawatt (DiPippo, 2008). As far as physical environmental effects, geo‐ thermal projects may cause some kind of disruption activities as other same size and complexity of civil engineering projects. Also, the locations of excavations and sitting of boreholes and roads will have to be taken into account, soil and vegetation erosion, which may cause changes in ecosystems, has to be watched. It should be noted that many geother‐ mal installations are in remote areas where the natural level of noise is low and any addi‐ tional noise is very noticeable (Dickson & Fanelli, 2005). There is a relatively larger production of waste-heat energy in geothermal systems, and this needs to be dissipated in an environmentally acceptable way. In ORC-based low-temperature geothermal power sys‐PDF Image | ORC-Based Geothermal Power Generation and CO2- Based EGS for Combined Green Power Generation and CO2 Sequestration
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