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that either operated poorly or never operated at all. As a result, investment tax credits were replaced with electricity production–based tax credits. Given the current levels of ITCs and production tax credits (PTCs), solar technologies would be better served by switching to the same PTCs that wind technologies currently receive. Utility Green Pricing Programs: Green pricing programs are optional programs offered by utilities to allow customers to increase their utility’s reliance on renewable power (Swezey and Houston, 1998). Customers pay a premium on their electric bill to cover the incremental cost of the additional renewable energy. There are a number of green pricing approaches being used by various utilities across the country. The most prevalent is an energy-based approach in which customers can choose to purchase a block or a fixed percentage of their electric energy requirements from renewables. Typical price premiums vary from 1.5¢/kWh to 6¢/kWh. Green Markets: A number of states have implemented retail competition as part of their utility restructuring. As a result, retail customers can now select their electric power provider in much the same way that we select a long-distance telephone service. Because of the stranded assets issue discussed above (the need to pay off the investment in existing power plants), there tends to be only minor price differences among various power providers. Thus the ability to purchase renewable energy has become one of the most attractive products in the competitive market (Wiser and Pickle, 1998). In California, customers pay green power premiums from 0.7¢/kWh to more than 3¢/kWh depending on the renewable content, the type of renewable, and whether any new renewable generation will be built. A premium of about 3¢/kWh is charged for 100% wind power with 10% new generation. Renewable Portfolio Standards: A number of states have begun implementing renewable or solar portfolio standards as part of the restructuring of their power utilities. Portfolio standards typically require a specific percentage of renewable power to be supplied. Arizona has tentatively put in place a solar portfolio requirement of 0.5% of power sold by 1999 and increasing to 1% by 2002, with a 30¢/kWh penalty to be assessed for any shortfall. Carbon Tax: One alternative considered to reduce CO2 emissions to the atmosphere is to place a carbon tax on fossil fuels. In a recent study performed by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Information Administration (EIA, 1998), a carbon tax of $348 per metric ton (1996 dollars) was necessary to achieve the U.S. carbon emission target of a 7% reduction below 1990 levels. As a point of reference, a $100 per metric ton carbon tax would increase the cost of power from a natural gas–fired combined-cycle system by approximately 1¢/kWh and by 2.5¢/kWh from coal power plants. TROUGH CASE STUDY What would it take for a parabolic trough power plant to compete in today’s competitive power market? The following study was completed to gain a better understanding of potential opportunities for trough technology. A good market and location was identified, then an optimum plant/project configuration was selected to minimize cost. Next, an approach to achieve tax equity between solar and fossil plants was identified. Finally a number of options were identified to help offset the capital cost penalty of the “solar fuel.” Using this approach, it is possible for solar to achieve economic parity with state-of-the-art fossil power technologies. Market Opportunities for Trough Power Given the strong correlation between power output and direct normal solar resource, concentrating solar power technologies are best suited for the southwestern United States. This region has the best direct normal solar resource in the United States. Any of the states in this region — and many areas in Mexico — represent potential market opportunities for CSP technologies. For purposes of this analysis, California was selected as the assumed plant location. California represents a sizable market; it consumes 50% more power than Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah combined; and the average cost of power is 50% higher. California currently imports 20%–25% of its annual energy from outside the state. As a result of the restructuring of its electric power industry, California is experiencing a boom in merchant plant developments. Currently 2760 MWe of new merchant plant capacity is applying for permit, and applications for an additional 4000 MWe of new capacity are expected soon. The location of the existing SEGS plants in the California Mojave Desert is one of the best known solar resource regions in the world. In addition, an extensive grid of high-voltage transmission lines already pass through this region. The existence of the competitive power market provides an opportunity for solar power to be competitively marketed through the California power exchange. There is an excellent match between peak system loads and the solar power supplied from a trough plant. The power exchange has already demonstrated that the competitive market places a higher value on power generated when a solar plant operates. Since California is home to all the existing SEGS projects and has historically supported development of renewable technologies, it represents one of the best opportunities for new trough solar power plants. Optimum Trough Plant Configuration To minimize technology risk, SEGS type plants and Luz trough technology will be assumed. The plants are assumed to operate with solar energy whenever possible. Fossil backup would only be used during summer on-peak and mid-peak periods when the value of the power produced would be greater than the cost of producing it from natural gas. As a result the plants are assumed to operate at about a 30% annual capacity factor with only about 15% of their energy coming from the fossil backup. Plant size would be increased to 200 MWe, with multiple plants built in a solar power park. Five individual SEGS plants would be built sequentially, but they would be Copyright © 1999 by ASMEPDF Image | Parabolic Trough Solar Power for Competitive U.S. Markets
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