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Self-Powered Systems Chemie synthesis and sophisticated fabrication technologies.[22] Although micro-/nanodevices require much lower power consumption than their con- ventional counterparts,[23] the powering of these systems can still be challenging. Almost all reported MNSs are powered by a traditional power cord or battery, which is in general much larger than the device being powered and hence dic- tates the size of the entire system. This conventional power-supply scenario also leads to issues of replace- ment/maintenance, cost, and environmental concerns, and severely hinders the further development and practical deployment of micro-/nano- technology.[24] A nanosystem should therefore consist of not only functional nanodevi- ces but also nanoscale power sources. The dilemma is, how- Angewandte increasingly micro-/nano- Figure 2. Future perspective of electronics beyond Moore’s law. The vertical axis reflects miniaturization and increasing device density, CPU speed, and memory capacity. The horizontal axis reflects the diversity and functionality of personal and portable electronic devices. The future of these devices lies in the integration of CPU speed and functionality. CMOS = complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor, CPU = central processing unit. tronic devices, energy consumption is not solely measured in terms of cost, as in the case of a large-scale power require- ment, but energy is required to enable the operation of the MNS. Pacemakers are a typical example. Practically, in applications such as environmental and biomedical monitoring, a sampling rate of once every few minutes should be adequate, whereas in other scenarios, such as infrastructure and health monitoring, a measurement rate of once every few hours could be appropriate. The operation of a wireless MNS for such applications should therefore consist of both active and standby modes with low-duty cycles: most of the time, the MNS is dormant with minimum energy consumption, and active operation of the system is only required periodically according to the preset sampling rate (Figure 3). Accumulated power harvested by the system during the standby period between two active periods might be sufficient to drive the operation of the MNS in its active mode. The main requirement for energy harvesting may thus be minimization of the power consumption of the device in its standby mode and during the transitions from the standby mode to the active mode. 2.3. Self-Powered MNSs Intensive efforts during the last two decades towards the design and development of micro-/nanotechnology for vari- ous applications have led to systems with unprecedented performance, as enabled by improved capabilities in materials Figure 3. Operation of an MNS with a short active mode and a long sleep mode. The energy harvested during the sleep mode can power the device in the active mode for sensing, data processing, and wireless signal transmission. ever, that the miniature size of these power sources can largely limit their lifetime and efficiency. The design and development of appropriate energy-harvesting strategies for miniaturized powering packages is thus critical to the fulfill- ment of the potential and promises of micro-/nanotech- nology.[7c, 25] Research on micro-/nanotechnology in the near future should therefore be aimed at integrating micro-/nanodevices into multifunctional systems capable of wireless, self-suffi- Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.angewandte.org &&&& These are not the final page numbers! Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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