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. Angewandte Reviews cient, and intelligent operations, such as sensing, actuating/ responding, communicating, and controlling.[24,26] It is highly desirable for MNSs to be self-powered without a battery, particularly for applications such as remote sensing and implanted biomedical systems,[27] as the life span of the devices would thus be extended, the footprint and cost of entire system decreased, and the adaptability of these MNSs to the environment increased. The development of enabling technology for harvesting energy from the environment and converting it into usable electric power to support the self- sufficient operation of MNSs is the most promising strategy to overcome the current challenges and hurdles presented by conventional powering methods. In contrast to energy stored in storage elements, such as batteries and capacitors, the environment can be viewed as an almost infinite reservoir of energy available for potential applications. The goal of energy-harvesting technologies for self-powered MNSs is thus to develop power sources which operate over a broad range of conditions for extended time periods with high reliability. 3. Micro-/Nanotechnology-Enabled Technologies for Energy Harvesting There are a variety of sources available for energy scavenging by MNSs from the ambient environment, includ- ing, but not limited to, energy in natural forms, such as wind, water flow, ocean waves, and solar power; mechanical energy, such as vibrations from machines, engines, and infrastruc- tures; thermal energy, such as waste heat from heaters and joule heating of electronic devices; light energy from both domestic/city lighting and outdoor sunlight; and electro- magnetic energy from inductor coils/transformers as well as from mobile electronic devices. Moreover, the human body itself provides a tremendous amount of energy that is available for harvesting and potential utilization in self- powered MNSs: mechanical energy due to vibration/motion from body movement, respiration, and even blood flow in vessels ; thermal energy from body heat ; and biochemical energy generated during physiological processes and meta- bolic reactions. In this section, various energy-harvesting techniques are reviewed, and their application prospects in future self-powered MNSs are discussed. 3.1. Photovoltaic Technologies for Solar-Energy Harvesting Solar energy is by far the most abundant exploitable renewable energy resource. More energy is provided to the earth by sunlight irradiation within one hour than is consumed by human society globally in one year.[28] Semi- conductor materials that exhibit a photovoltaic (PV) effect can be used to convert solar radiation into electricity through a photovoltaic process. PV technology has been growing and expanding rapidly. The total global energy production by PV processes reached 64 GW (1 GW = 109 W) by the end of 2011.[29] Despite this considerable capacity, however, PV technology only accounts for 0.1% of electricity generation Z. L. Wang and W. Wu &&&& www.angewandte.org 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 These are not the final page numbers! globally,[30] largely as a result of the inability of existing PV technologies to produce electricity with an efficiency that fulfils the grid parity set by conventional power-generation routes.[31] Enormous efforts and resources have therefore been devoted to the development of new-generation PV technologies that operate with enhanced efficiency at lower cost. Practically all PV devices, or solar cells, incorporate a p–n junction. Such junctions occur in various possible configurations. Solar cells containing multiple p–n junctions have recently been investigated intensively for the more efficient absorption of light with different wavelengths with the aim of reducing the inherent sources of energy loss in conventional single-junction cells. A conversion efficiency of 42.3% was achieved by combining multijunction cells and concentrator technology.[32] However, the high efficiency of multijunction cells is offset by their increased complexity and manufacturing cost, which limit their application mainly to aerospace exploration, for which a high power-to-weight ratio is desirable. The dominance of PV technology historically by inorganic solid-state junction devices is now being challenged by the emergence of a new generation of PV technologies built, for example, on nanostructured materials or conducting polymers. Such technologies offer the prospect of converting solar energy into electricity at low cost. Subsequent discus- sions on solar-energy harvesting are focused on micro-/ nanotechnology-enabled PV technologies and their potential applications in MNSs. 3.1.1. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells The dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC), invented by Michael Grätzel and Brian ORegan in 1991,[33] enables optical absorption and charge separation/injection by associating a dye sensitizer (a light-absorbing material) with a wide-band- gap semiconductor of nanocrystalline morphology as the photoanode. This type of solar cell is based on the combina- tion of interpenetrating networks of mesoscopic semiconduc- tor materials with electrolytes,[34] as alternatives to the p–n junctions of inorganic solid-state semiconductors in conventional solar cells. A three-dimensional network of randomly dispersed TiO2 nanoparticles has typically been adopted as the photoanode in DSSCs since their first introduction.[33,35] Although its fabrication is straightforward and cheap, the disordered network of TiO2 nanoparticles presents numerous grain boundaries and hence multiple trapping sites.[36] These trap- ping sites not only promote the increased recombination of electrons but also hinder the collection of the excited electrons and thus compromise the overall conversion efficiency. Structural configurations with higher degrees of order than the random assemblies of nanoparticles are expected to facilitate the transport/collection of electrons and hence improve the efficiency of solar cells. Rapid progress has also been made in the application of ZnO nanomaterials as transparent photoanodes in DSSCs.[37] The coupled piezoelectric, semiconductor, and photoexcitation properties of ZnO together with the straightforward methods available for the synthesis of various ZnO nanostructures at Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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