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. Angewandte Reviews Z. L. Wang and W. Wu Figure 6. Improvement in the output voltage of nanogenerators based on ZnO nanowires in various configurations. The corresponding output power density is also indicated. The inset shows the simulated piezoelectric-potential distribution in the nanowires of the nanogenerator upon transverse and axial straining (from Ref. [104]). SWG = single wire generator. expected that piezopotential can be increased significantly if carrier density in ZnO can be decreased by engineering methods.[14a,107] On the basis of these fundamental physical principles, the output of NGs has been improved dramatically in the last few years. Such devices are now suitable for driving commercial electronics. The plot in Figure6 shows the technological progress we have made in NGs based on ZnO NWs in the last few years. Strain-induced electricity generation from piezoelectric NWs was first demonstrated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) on vertically aligned ZnO NW arrays in the clamped– free configuration.[108] The Schottky contact formed between the AFM tip and the ZnO NW results in unipolar electrical output (Figure 7 a). Similar experiments have been conducted subsequently on single ZnO wires with larger dimensions and NWs of other materials in the wurtzite family, such as CdS, InN, and GaN, with outputs ranging from several millivolts to 1 V.[109] These initial demonstrations of the harvesting of mechanical energy at the nanoscale inspired the development of the first prototype of integrated NGs for potential high- output applications, whereby the usage of AFM tips was extended to a platinum-coated serrated-electrode array, which converted ultrasonically induced vibrations of the vertically aligned ZnO NWs into electricity.[101a] Owing to the in situ rectifying effect of the Schottky contact formed between the top electrode and NWs, the output signal exhibited a direct-current (DC) characteristic with a typical operational power output of approximately 2.5 nW cm2 (Figure 7 b). This low power output was attributed to the large internal resistance of the device and the poor contact between NWs and the top electrode.[101a] Subsequent research significantly boosted the performance of DC NGs based on vertically aligned ZnO NWs to an output power density of 0.11 mW cm2 at a voltage of 62 mV through pairing of the metal-coated ZnO-nanotip top electrodes with the active ZnO NW arrays in a multilayer stacking configuration[101e] (Figure 7 c). When the configuration of the vertically aligned ZnO NWs was changed from a clamped–free configuration to a clamped–clamped configuration, with both ends fixed by &&&& www.angewandte.org 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 These are not the final page numbers! Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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