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Self-Powered Systems Chemie Figure 7. DC nanogenerators based on arrays of vertical nanowires. The three designs (a) from Ref. [108], b) from Ref. [101b], and c) from Ref. [101e]) function by transverse triggering of the ZnO nanowires by metal tips, which form Schottky contacts with the nanowires. electrodes, the output current type of the NGs switched from DC to alternating current (AC ; Figure 8 a). More signifi- cantly, the performance of these AC NG prototypes was enhanced hugely to a peak power density of approximately 2.7 mW cm3 with an output voltage of up to 0.243 V by three- layer integration. These NGs even outperformed conven- tional PZT cantilevers and exhibited the potential to power small electronic systems.[110] Another AC NG prototype was created by the cyclic stretching/releasing of a single piezoelectric fine wire (PFW) that was laterally packaged on a flexible substrate with both ends firmly bound by metal electrodes.[101c] When the PFW was stretched by substrate bending, a piezopotential drop was created along the PFW; the flow of electrons was driven back and forth in the external circuit when the PFW was stretched and released (Figure 8 b). Such single-wire AC NGs have been reported to be able to generate an AC output voltage of about 50 mV and to show an energy-conversion efficiency of 6.8 % under 0.05–0.1 % strain. Flexible AC NGs of this type have been implemented subsequently to harvest biomechan- ical energy both in vitro and in vivo.[111] The feasibility and potential of the use of flexible AC NGs for harvesting low- frequency mechanical energy from both the environment and a biological entity were thus demonstrated. Although the use of such flexible AC NGs is a robust approach for harvesting low-frequency mechanical energy, applications of these systems are limited as a result of their low output power. In an effort to increase their power output to a level suitable for practical applications, the design of flexible AC NGs was scaled up to enable the collection of contributions from large NWs simultaneously and collec- tively, by integrating top-down microfabrication with bottom- up NW synthesis.[101d, 110, 112] A remarkably high output with an open-circuit voltage of up to 2.03 V and a peak output power density of around 11 mW cm3 was reported for a flexible high-output NG fabricated by a scalable sweeping-printing method[101d] (Figure 8 c). The electricity generated was stored and successfully utilized later to light up a commercial light- emitting diode (LED): a landmark step toward the construc- tion of self-powered devices that harvest energy from the environment. Recent advances in the development of high- output AC NGs relax the contact requirement in fabrication. Cone-shaped ZnO NWs and a rational “composite” structure to induce the unipolar assembly of the conical NWs resulted in a macroscopic piezopotential to drive the flow of inductive charges between the top and bottom electrodes[101f] (Fig- ure 8 d). The output of such AC NGs, with voltages of about 2 V and a current of about 50 nA, is sufficient to continuously drive the operation of small electronic devices, such as liquid- crystal displays. NGs based on ZnO NWs can be fabricated on various substrates, including polymers, semiconductors, and metals, and even on unconventional nonplanar substrates, such as fibers. A textile-fiber-based NG has been developed for harvesting low-frequency energy created by vibration and friction,[101b] whereby sliding/deflection between two entan- gled fibers can result in the deflection of the uncoated ZnO NWs and hence produce a piezopotential for electrical output (Figure 9 a). This prototype of a textile-fiber-based NG exmplifies the innovative advances that have been made in the fabrication of flexible, adaptable, wearable, and robust power sources in almost any shape. Moreover, the output can be dramatically increased by weaving bundles of such fibers into fabrics, potentially for applications such as smart clothes. Fiber NGs based on similar configurations were later implemented to harvest low-frequency vibrations induced by an air or liquid flow and by exhalation or the heartbeat of Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.angewandte.org These are not the final page numbers! &&&& Angewandte Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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