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. Angewandte Reviews Figure 8. a–c) AC nanogenerators fabricated from vertical or horizontal nanowires that are bonded firmly at both ends to the two electrodes. In these three designs (a) from Ref. [110], b) from Ref. [101c], and c) from Ref. [101d]), one of the contacts has to be a Schottky contact or an insulator between the metal electrode and the nanowires. d) Nanogenerator with a composite structure of the nanowires and a matrix (from Ref. [101f]). This structure leads to macroscopic polar- ization perpendicular to the film. a human body for the generation of electricity or sensing applications (Figure 9 b).[113] ZnO NWs have been the dominant nanomaterial inves- tigated for the development of NG applications. The biocom- patibility of ZnO materials also enables potential applications of ZnO-NW NGs in the harvesting of mechanical energy generated by the human body. The human body contains an abundance of mechanical energy induced by continuous activities, such as breathing and the beating of the heart, and discontinuous motions, such as walking and muscle stretching, for powering future MNS-based biomedical devices, health- monitoring units, and even personal computers. Research on NGs for the harvesting of mechanical energy at the micro-/ nanoscale has also been carried out with other materials, such as poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) fibers/belts, PZT nano- ribbons, and other semiconductor materials.[112a,b,114] PZT nanoribbons and PVDF microfibers/belts exhibit potential for integration into functional systems as practical powering sources. Single-crystal perovskite materials, such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT), have conventionally been used in devices for piezoelectric energy conversion.[115] Although Z. L. Wang and W. Wu &&&& www.angewandte.org 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 These are not the final page numbers! Figure 9. a) Fiber-based nanogenerator based on the principle de- scribed in Ref. [95b] (from Ref. [101b]). b) Fiber nanogenerator based on the use of a nanowire film formed on the surface of a carbon fiber (from Ref. [113]). The principle is shown on the right-hand side. PZT has a much larger piezoelectric coefficient than other piezoelectric materials, such as PVDF or ZnO, its high permittivity reduces the energy-conversion efficiency, so that its performance is somewhat less than that of ZnO for this purpose. Furthermore, PZT is damaged by the high-temper- ature process and has limited possible applications owing to its brittleness and rigidity. Because of these characteristics, devices based on PZT can only be subjected to small strain deformations, and PZT can only be integrated with limited classes of substrates.[112b, 114 f] Thin membranes/ribbons of PZT with a thickness in the nanometer range, which have both a high piezoelectric coefficient and more importantly the flexibility to tolerate large strain deformations, can be transfer printed onto almost any substrate. In particular, deformable and stretchable substrates can be used for adaptive and flexible energy harvesting, although the issues of biocompatibility and environmental impact still need to be properly addressed. PVDF, on the other hand, exhibits good piezoelectric and mechanical properties.[112a, 114a] Its chemical stability and biocompatibility also enable its application in sensing, actuation, and energy harvesting in biological systems. However, untreated PVDF can have several mixed crystalline phases. It has to be mechanically stretched and electrically poled to obtain the b phase for piezoelectric applications.[116] The use of piezoelectric nanomaterials for harvesting mechanical energy at the micro-/nanoscale has demonstrated the potential for applications in future self-powered MNSs. Despite current efforts in material processing and the optimization of NG design, however, the power density and energy-conversion efficiency have to be higher for real applications of NGs in the powering of small electronic devices and micro-/nanosystems to become viable. Moreover, Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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