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. Angewandte Reviews chemical energy, into electricity, as described above. These existing approaches, however, were investigated and devel- oped on the basis of drastically different physical principles and diverse engineering approaches to specifically harvest a certain type of energy, while the other types of energy were wasted. Innovative approaches have to be developed for the conjunctional harvesting of multiple types of energy through the use of integrated structures/materials, so that all available energy resources can be effectively and complementarily utilized.[24] On a smaller scale, the temporal/spatial distribu- tion and availability of energy sources for driving MNSs vary drastically. The concurrent harvesting of multiple energy types from the ambient environment by a single integral device has therefore emerged as a promising approach toward the sustainable and maintenance-free operation of MNSs. Ever since the first demonstration of a nanotechnology- enabled hybrid cell (HC) by the Wang research group for the simultaneous harvesting of multiple types of energy with a single device,[128] this technology has been advancing at an increasing pace. 3.6.1. Hybrid Cells for the Harvesting of Solar and Mechanical Energy The first nanotechnology-enabled hybrid cell was devel- oped by the Wang research group in 2009 for harvesting solar and mechanical energy with a single energy harvester. The device essentially integrates a DSSC and a piezoelectric NG, both of which are based on an array of ZnO NWs, on a common substrate.[128] The cathode of the NG and the anode of the DSSC were integrated on the same silicon substrate to form a serial connection between the DSSC and the NG. The DSSC and NG units in the HC can work independently when a source of either solar or mechanical energy is available. It has also been demonstrated that the HC can harvest both the solar and the mechanical energy simultaneously and synerg- istically. However, reliability issues imposed by solvent leakage and evaporation as a well as the low power output hinder the practical application of this HC. A prototype of a compact HC in which an NG based on a ZnO-NW array was integrated with a solid-state DSSC showed enhanced perfor- mance and durability owing to the introduction of a solid- state electrolyte and convolute structures formed between the NG and the DSSC[129] (Figure 10). Choi et al. later described a flexible HC based on a ZnO- NW array that overcomes the disadvantages of the above HC prototypes of cross-talk and additional assembly processes.[130] The ZnO-NW array in this flexible HC not only serves as the NG, but also acts simultaneously as the solar cell part of the device by integrating with an infiltrated organic polymer. One significant characteristic of this flexible HC is that the output signals from the solar-cell part take the form of a direct current, whereas the output signals from the NG originally occur as an alternating current. By controlling the mechanical straining process, the AC signals can be converted into DC- like signals. Owing to the controllability of the output behavior, the performance of the HC can be synergistically enhanced by the contribution of the NG part. Lee et al. demonstrated a conceptually similar HC prototype based on Z. L. Wang and W. Wu &&&& www.angewandte.org 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 These are not the final page numbers! Figure 10. a) Compact hybrid-cell structure consisting of a solar cell and a nanogenerator. The hybrid cell is illuminated by sunlight from the top and excited by ultrasonic waves from the bottom. b,c) The fabricated top and bottom components of the hybrid cell. The hybrid cell simultaneously harvests solar and mechanical energy (from Ref. [129]). Spiro-MeOTAD = 2,2’,7,7’-tetrakis(N,N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)- amino)-9,9’-spirobifluorene. the integration of a ZnO-NW NG with infiltrated quantum dots (QDs), which surrounded the NWs. This HC was specifically developed for harvesting sound and solar energy simultaneously.[131] A further demonstration of the integration of multiple energy harvesters together with a storage device along a single fiber involved the use of ZnO nanowires (NWs) and graphene.[132] This approach allows simultaneous harvest- ing of solar and mechanical energy and in situ storage of this harvested energy for potential applications in flexible and wearable electronics. 3.6.2. Hybrid Cells for the Harvesting of Biomechanical and Biochemical Energy There has been an increasing need for sustainably powered implantable wireless micro/nanodevices for in vivo biomedical applications, preferably without the incorporation of batteries. One viable approach is to concurrently harvest energy from multiple energy sources within the biological entity. Inherently, mechanical and biochemical energy due to body motion, muscle stretching, and metabolic processes abound in the biological entity. A prototype hybrid energy- scavenging device was developed to address the above application needs through the direct harvesting of mechanical and biochemical energies in a biofluid environment.[133] This hybrid energy scavenger consists of a piezoelectric PVDF- nanofiber NG for harvesting mechanical energy, such as from respiration and blood flow in the vessels, integrated with a flexible enzymatic BFC for harvesting the biochemical energy from the chemical processes between glucose and O2 in biofluid. These two energy harvesting approaches, inte- grated within one single device, can work either individually Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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