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Self-Powered Systems Chemie self-sustainably (Figure 12 a) and demonstrated the potential of ZnO-NW NGs in applications of wireless biosensing, environmental/infrastructure monitoring, and wireless sensor networks.[13b] In another example, a fully stand-alone, self- powered environmental sensor based on a single-walled-CNT (SWNT) field-effect transistor (FET) and a ZnO-NW NG was implemented for the detection of Hg2+ ions and evalua- tion of their concentration in water.[139] This application is of potential importance for the monitoring of water quality. The sensor array based on the SWNT network served as the Hg2+ sensor, and the ZnO-NW NG served as the energy-harvesting component (Figure 12 b). In a recent study, a ZnO-NW NG was integrated onto the inner surface of a tire to scavenge mechanical energy from deformation of the tire during motion, and the harvested energy was used to power a liquid-crystal-display (LCD) screen.[107] A similar approach could be used to develop a self-powered tire-pressure sensor and speed detector for mobile vehicles. The feasibility of building self-powered nanodevices for in vivo biomedical applications has also been investigated, with the use of harvested biochemical energy[140] or a combination of bio- mechanical and biochemical energy[133,134] to power NW- based sensors. The seminal studies carried out by Wang and others have inspired rapid progress in the field of self- powered micro-/nanotechnology worldwide in applications ranging from corrosion monitoring to distributed sensing and environmental monitoring.[141] 4.3. Prospects and Challenges in the Development of Self- Powered MNSs It can be anticipated that self-powered MNSs will play a critical role in the implementation of implantable electron- ics, remote and mobile environmental sensors, nanorobotics, intelligent MEMSs/NEMSs, and portable/wearable personal electronics. Self-powered MNSs are also key components of large-scale fault-tolerant sensor networks. When traditional discrete sensors are replaced by a large number of sensor nodes distributed in a field, the statistical analysis of signals collected through the network of distributed sensors can provide precise and reliable information for tracking and monitoring purposes. An internet of things which can correlate objects/products and devices with databases and networks is expected to revolutionize the future of health care, medical monitoring, infrastructure/environmental mon- itoring, logistics, and smart homes.[142] One decisive factor for the implementation of self- powered MNSs is the successful development of energy- harvesting technologies to provide appropriate power sources that operate over a broad range of conditions for extended time periods with high reliability. For comparison, the major energy-harvesting techniques discussed herein and their prospects for application in self-powered MNSs are summar- ized in Table 1. Despite the excellent progress that has been made in the emerging field of self-powered micro-/nanotechnology, sev- eral issues still need to be addressed appropriately for the promised potential of self-powered micro/nanotechnology to be fully realized. The design/fabrication flow for the develop- ment of future self-powered MNSs should be amenable to scaleup and, critically, be compatible with the microfabrica- tion technology. Almost all prototypes demonstrated to date were fabricated at a level unsuitable for mass production. State-of-the-art microfabrication technologies were hardly used, which severely prohibits the broader implementation of current self-powered MNSs. Moreover, future self-powered MNSs should be implemented in such a way that multiple types of energy can be harvested synergistically by hybridized systems with sufficiently high outputs. Finally, to enable not only the self-sufficient but also the sustainable operation of the deployed devices/systems in applications such as wireless biomedical sensing, the development of self-powered MNSs from materials which are environmentally friendly, biocom- patible, and biodegradable is essential. When these issues are addressed properly, sustainable self-sufficient micro-/nano- systems will play a critical role in the advancement of the important fields of sensing, medical science, infrastructure/ Table 1: Comparison of energy-harvesting techniques and their potential for self-powered MNSs. Energy source solar thermal mechanical vibrations biochemical Harvesting principle photovoltaic thermoelectric piezoelectric biochemical reactions Approximate power den- sity 10–100 mWcm2 10–100 mWcm2 1–10 mW cm2 0.1– 1 mWcm2 Advantages microfabrication compatible, mature technology, long lifetime, high power output no moving parts required, long life- time, high reality, continuous output ubiquitous and abundant in the ambient, broad frequency and power ranges biocompatible/degradable, clean energy, environmentally friendly, inex- pensive, abundant in biological enti- ties Disadvantages limited by environmental conditions, not applicable in biological entities low efficiency, large size, a large and sustained thermal gradient is required low efficiency, discontinu- ous output low power output, poor reliability, limited lifetime Potential applications in self- powered MNSs remote sensing and environmen- tal monitoring structural-health monitoring for engines and machines, wearable biomedical devices remote sensing and environmen- tal monitoring, structural- health monitoring, wearable systems, in vivo applications in vivo applications, environmen- tal monitoring/sensing Angewandte Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2 – 24 www.angewandte.org &&&& These are not the final page numbers! 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Ü ÜPDF Image | Self-Powered Nanosystems
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