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The most common types of PV devices are flat- plate modules, which are flat sheets of glass or other materials containing the solar cells. Typical module sizes range from 10 to 300 watts. A ground-mounted array of modules is typically mounted on an east-west axis at a tilt angle equal to the local latitude to optimize solar-energy production. Solar cells can also be integrated into products, like calculators or building materials. Building-integrated photovoltaics become an unobtrusive part of building walls and roofs. In some applications, flat-plate modules are placed on one- or two- axis tracking structures to increase power output by following the sun. The simplest PV applications directly power a device, such as a water pump, whenever the sun is shining. Many applications incorporate energy storage, such as batteries, which are charged during sunny periods and then discharged to provide energy overnight and during cloudy periods. Grid-connected PV systems use inverters to convert the direct current (DC) output of the solar cells to alternating current (AC) and interact with the utility grid to provide continuous service. When more energy is available than is used by local loads, the excess energy flows into the utility grid for use by other loads. When less energy is available locally than needed, energy flows from the grid to local loads. About 340 MW of PV were manufactured in the world in 2001, with about 97 MW sold in the United States. Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) systems use lenses or mirrors to focus sunlight onto the solar cells. Because of the concentrated sunlight, the output of each solar cell is greater than for one-sun devices, and fewer devices are required. Only the direct component of the sunlight is effectively concentrated, so the solar cells and associated optical concentrator must be mounted on a structure that tracks the sun. System sizes range from about 1 to tens of kilowatts and can be deployed in groups to produce more power. Small numbers of systems have been installed to date. During the balmy summer of 1998 in Lakeland, Florida, a PV demonstration project showed that an energy-efficient residential building (PVRES House), producing its own solar-electric power, exerted almost no electric demand on the Florida electricity grid during peak hours—in stark contrast to a standard home (Control House). This experiment demonstrated the strong influence that photovoltaics, solar water heating, and energy- efficient design can have in areas where peak electricity demand—and electricity cost—is driven by air-conditioning loads. The Florida Solar Energy Center conducted the demonstration project with the assistance of Sandia National Laboratories and Lakeland Electric and Water. Solar Energy Technologies Program Multi-Year Technical Plan 24PDF Image | Solar Energy Technologies Program
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