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can be used while aiming for reasonable efficiencies. Although this approach is relatively new, progress on cell efficiencies to about 10% has been made. Further work will emphasize both efficiency (a minimum of 14% to 15% at the cell level is crucial to make 12% modules) and increased film- deposition rates to make economical modules. In addition, this area may also blend into the a-Si area by providing new hybrid approaches that derive benefits from both c-Si and a-Si, as well as lending themselves to multijunction approaches. Thin Films. The research challenges facing the more mature thin films (a-Si, CIS, CdTe) can be simplified to: (1) Improving every aspect (e.g., rate, yield, capital cost, throughput, materials use) of the active-layer manufacturing to reach the low, desired capital investment level (while maintaining all other qualities such as module efficiency) (2) Improving commercial module efficiencies to levels above 10% (and toward 15%, incrementally) (3) Assuring intrinsic device and packaged-module reliability outdoors (at low costs). Achievements can only be meaningful if modules are reliable outdoors, and this breaks down into two challenges: intrinsic materials and device stability and robust, yet inexpensive, module packaging. Amorphous Silicon. Amorphous silicon was the first thin-film material to provide a commercial product. Initially, a-Si was used mostly in consumer items such as calculators. With increasing efficiencies, proven manufacturability, and innovative products such as modules that double as roof shingles and others that can be semitransparent for building-integrated uses, a-Si is expanding its markets. Research on a-Si focuses on several of today’s challenges. These include improving the stability and conversion efficiency of fielded a-Si modules, which lose efficiency when first exposed to light. Another key research area involves reducing the capital equipment costs for manufacturing a-Si panels through improved manufacturing processes that include increasing the rates of material deposition. Also under study are improvements to module-packaging designs to make them more resilient in outdoor environments and less susceptible to glass breakage or moisture ingression. Another promising research area involves developing new module designs for building-integrated applications. Copper Indium Diselenide. After two decades of R&D, CIS is being introduced to the market, with prototype modules made by Shell Solar (Camarillo, CA) consistently reaching efficiencies greater than 11%—beating a goal set in the last PV Subprogram 5-year plan by more than a year. CIS is also enjoying success in the laboratory, with cell efficiencies climbing to a world-record 19.2% at NREL. Researchers are investigating ways to push efficiencies even higher by exploring the chemistry and physics of the junction formation and by examining concepts to allow more of the high-energy part of the solar spectrum to reach the absorber layer. They are also trying to drop costs and facilitate the transition to the commercial stage by increasing the yield of CIS modules (i.e., by increasing the percentage of modules and cells that make it intact through the manufacturing process). Manufacturing complexity and cost, and module packaging, are also areas of research focus. Cadmium Telluride. Researchers on the CdTe Team are trying to boost efficiencies by, among other things, exploring innovative transparent conducting oxides that let more light into the cell to be absorbed and that more efficiently collect the current generated by the cell. Others are studying mechanisms such as grain boundaries that might limit cell voltage. Some CdTe devices exhibit degradation at the contacts. Understanding the degradation and redesigning devices to minimize it will be major efforts of the PV Subprogram during the next few years. A similar focus will be on designing module packages that minimize any exposure to water vapor outdoors. Both indoor and outdoor cell and module stress testing is under way aggressively. A Request for Proposal to test modules in hot and humid climates (contracts due in FY 2003) was designed to partially meet this need (along with helping the other thin films). Solar Energy Technologies Program Multi-Year Technical Plan 55PDF Image | Solar Energy Technologies Program
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