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as wood drying) or space heating (usually district heating) [5]. Since heat is relatively difficult to transport across long distances, biomass CHP plants are most of the time limited to 6–10 MW thermal power, corresponding to 1–2 MW electrical power. This excludes traditional steam cycles that are not cost-effective in this power range (this particular point will be further developed in Section 4). Simplified diagrams of such cogeneration systems are pro- posed in Figs. 2 and 3: heat from the combustion is transferred from the flue gases to the heat transfer fluid (thermal oil) in two heat exchangers, at a temperature varying between 150 and 320 1C. The heat transfer fluid is then directed to the ORC loop to evaporate the working fluid, at a temperature slightly lower than 3001C. Next, the evaporated fluid is expanded, passes through a recuperator to preheat the liquid and is finally con- densed at a temperature around 90 1C. The condenser is used for hot water generation. For the particular example of Fig. 2, although the electrical efficiency of the CHP system is limited (18%), the overall efficiency of the system is 88%, which is much higher than that of centralized power plants, in which most of the residual heat is lost. To reduce heat losses in the flue gases, these gases must be cooled down to the lowest possible temperature, insofar as the acid dew point is not reached. To achieve this, two heat transfer loops are used: a high temperature loop and a low temperature loop. The low temperature loop is installed after the high temperature loop on the flue gases to reduce their outlet temperature (Fig. 3). The main competing technology for electricity generation from solid biofuels is biomass gasification: in this technology, biomass is transformed into a synthetic gas composed mainly of H2, CO, CO2 and CH4. This synthetic gas is treated and filtered to eliminate solid particles, and is finally burned in an internal combustion engine or in a gas turbine. When comparing the technology and the costs of biomass CHP using an ORC with gasification, it can be shown that gasification involves higher investment costs (about 75%) and higher operation and maintenance costs (about 200%). On the other hand, gasification yields a higher power-to-thermal ratio, which makes its exploitation more profitable [6]. It should also be noted that ORC is a well-proven technology, while gasification plants in actual operation are mostly prototypes for demonstration purposes. 2.2. Geothermal energy Geothermal heat sources are available over a broad range of temperatures, from a few tens of degrees up to 300 1C. The actual technological lower bound for power generation is about 80 1C: below this temperature the conversion efficiency becomes too small and geothermal plants are not economical. Table 1 indicates the potential for geothermal energy in Europe and shows that this potential is very high for low temperature sources. To recover heat at an acceptable temperature, boreholes must generally be drilled in the ground, for the production well and for the injection well (cfr. Fig. 4). The hot brine is pumped from the former and injected into the latter at a lower temperature. Depending on the geological formation, boreholes can be several thousand meters deep, requiring several months of continuous Fig. 3. Working principle of a biomass CHP ORC system. Table 1 Potential for geothermal energy in Europe for different heat source temperature ranges [9]. Temperature (1C) MWth MWe 65–90 147,736 10,462 90–120 75,421 7503 120–150 22,819 1268 150–225 42,703 4745 225–350 66,897 11,150 S. Quoilin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 168–186 171 Fig. 2. Energy flow as a function of the conversion temperatures in a CHP ORC system.PDF Image | Techno-economic survey of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems
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