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172 S. Quoilin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 168–186 Fig. 4. Working principle of a geothermal ORC system. work. According to Kranz [7], this leads to a high share of drilling cost in the total investment cost (up to 70%) of a geothermal ORC plant. Lazzaretto et al. [8] reports a much more moderate share of 15.6% for an Italian geothermal binary cycle. Low-temperature geothermal ORC plants are also character- ized by relatively high auxiliary consumption: the pumps con- sume from 30% up to more than 50% of the gross output power [9]. The main consumer is the brine pump that has to circulate the brine over large distances and with a significantly high flow rate. The working fluid pump consumption is also higher than in higher temperature cycles, because the ratio between pump consumption and turbine output power (‘‘back work ratio’’) increases with decreasing evaporation temperature (see Section 8.2). Higher temperature ( 4 150 1C) geothermal heat sources enable combined heat and power generation: the condensing temperature is set to a higher level (e.g. 60 1C), allowing the cooling water to be used for district heating. In this case, the overall energy recovery efficiency is increased, but at the expense of a lower electrical efficiency. 2.3. Solar power plants Concentrating solar power is a well-proven technology: the sun is tracked and its radiation reflected onto a linear or punctual collector, transferring heat to a fluid at high temperature. This heat is then used in a power cycle to generate electricity. The three main concentrating solar power technologies are the para- bolic dish, the solar tower, and the parabolic trough. Parabolic dishes and solar towers are punctual concentration technologies, leading to a higher concentration factor and to higher tempera- tures. The most appropriate power cycles for these technologies are the Stirling engine (for small-scale plants), the steam cycle, or even the combined cycle (for solar towers). Parabolic troughs work at a lower temperature (300–400 1C) than point-focused CSP systems. Up to now, they were mainly coupled to traditional steam Rankine cycles for power generation [10]. They are subject to the same limitations as in geothermal or biomass power plants: steam cycles require high tempera- tures, high pressures, and therefore larger installed power to be profitable. Organic Rankine Cycles are a promising technology to decrease investment costs at small scale: they can work at lower tempera- tures, and the total installed power can be scaled down to the kW levels. The working principle of such a system is presented in Fig. 5. Technologies such as Fresnel linear concentrators [11] are Fig. 5. Working principle of a solar ORC system. particularly suitable for solar ORCs since they require a lower investment cost, but work at lower temperature. Up to now, very few CSP plants using ORC are available on the market: A 1 MWe concentrating solar power ORC plant was com- pleted in 2006 in Arizona. The ORC module uses n-pentane as the working fluid and shows an efficiency of 20%. The overall solar to electricity efficiency is 12.1% at the design point [12]. A 100 kWe plant was commissioned in 2009 in Hawaii by Electratherm. The heat transfer fluid temperature in the collectors is about 120 1C. Some very small-scale systems are being studied for remote off-grid applications, such as the proof-of-concept kWe system developed for rural electrification in Lesotho by ‘‘STG Interna- tional’’ [13]. 2.4. Waste heat recovery 2.4.1. Heat recovery on mechanical equipment and industrial processes Many applications in the manufacturing industry reject heat at relatively low temperature. In large-scale plants, this heat is usually overabundant and often cannot be reintegrated entirely on-site or used for district heating. It is therefore rejected to the atmosphere. This causes two types of pollution: pollutants (CO2, NOx, SOx, HC) present in the flue gases generate health and environmental issues; heat rejection perturbs aquatic equilibriums and has a negative effect on biodiversity [14]. Recovering waste heat mitigates these two types of pollution. It can moreover generate electricity to be consumed on-site or fed back to the grid. In such a system, the waste heat is usually recovered by an intermediate heat transfer loop and used to evaporate the working fluid of the ORC cycle. A potential of 750MWe is estimated for power generation from industrial waste heat in the US, 500 MWe in Germany and 3000 MWe in Europe (EU-12) [15]. Some industries present a particularly high potential for waste heat recovery. One example is the cement industry, where 40% of the available heat is expelled through flue gases. These flue gases are located after the limestone preheater or in the clinker cooler, with temperatures varying between 215 1C and 315 1C [16].PDF Image | Techno-economic survey of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems
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