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CO2 emissions from the cement industry amount for 5% of the total world GHG emissions, and half of it is due to the combustion of fossil fuels in the kilns [14]. Other examples include the iron and steel industries (10% of the GHG emission in China for example), refineries and chemical industries. 2.4.2. Heat recovery on internal combustion engines An Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) only converts about one-third of the fuel energy into mechanical power on typical driving cycles: a typical 1.4 l Spark Ignition ICE, with a thermal efficiency ranging from 15% to 32%, releases 1.7–45 kW of heat through the radiator (at a temperature close to 80–100 1C) and 4.6–120 kW via the exhaust gas (400–900 1C) [17]. The heat recovery Rankine cycle system (both organic and steam based) is an efficient means for recovering heat (in comparison with other technologies such as thermo-electricity and absorption cycle air-conditioning). The concept of applying a Rankine cycle to an ICE is not new and the first technical developments appeared after the 1970 energy crisis. For instance, Mack Trucks [18] designed and built a prototype of such a system operating on the exhaust gas of a 288 HP truck engine. A 450 km on-road test demonstrated the technical feasibility of the system and its economical interest: a reduction of 12.5% in the fuel consumption was reported. Systems developed today differ from those of 1970 because of advances in the development of expan- sion devices and the broader choice of working fluids. However, currently, no commercial Rankine cycle solution is available. Most of the systems under development recover heat from the exhaust gases and from the cooling circuit [19]. By contrast, the system developed by [20] only recovers heat from the cooling circuit. An additional potential heat source is the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and charge air coolers, in which non- negligible amounts of waste heat are dissipated. The expander output can be mechanical or electrical. With a mechanical system, the expander shaft is directly connected to the engine drive belt, with a clutch to avoid power losses when the ORC power output is too low. The main drawback of this configuration is the imposed expander speed: this speed is a fixed ratio of the engine speed and is not necessarily the optimal speed for maximizing cycle efficiency. In the case of electricity generation, the expander is coupled to an alternator, used to refill the batteries or supply auxiliary utilities, such as the air conditioning. It should be noted that current vehicle alternators show a quite low efficiency (about 50–60%), which reduces the ORC output power. As for the expander, the pump can be directly connected to the drive belt, to the expander shaft, or to an electrical motor. In the latter case, the working fluid flow rate can be controlled inde- pendently, which makes the regulation of such a system much easier. The control of the system is particularly complex due to the (often) transient regime of the heat source. However, optimizing the control is crucial to improve the performance of the system. It is generally necessary to control both the pump speed and the expander speed to maintain the required conditions (tempera- ture, pressure) at the expander inlet [21]. Another technical constraint is the heat rejection capacity. The size of the front heat exchanger (either an air-cooled condenser or the radiator connected to a water-cooled condenser) is limited by the available space and depends on the presence of an engine radiator, and possibly a charge air cooler, an EGR cooler or an air- conditioning condenser. The system should be controlled such that the rejected heat remains within the cooling margin, defined as the cooling capacity without operating the cooling fans. Otherwise, fan consumption can sharply reduce the net power output of the system [22]. The performance of recently developed prototypes of Rankine cycles is promising: the system designed by Honda [23] showed a maximum cycle thermal efficiency of 13%. At 100 km/h, this yields a cycle output of 2.5kW (for an engine output of 19.2kW) and represents an increase of the engine thermal efficiency from 28.9% to 32.7%. A competing technology under research and development is the thermoelectric generator (TEG), which is based on the Seebeck effect: its main advantages are a substantially lower weight than the ORC system, and the absence of moving parts. Major drawbacks are the cost of materials (which include rare earth metals) and the low achieved efficiency. 3. ORC manufacturer and market evolution ORC manufacturers have been present on the market since the beginning of the 1980s. They provide ORC solutions in a broad range of power and temperature levels, as shown in Table 2. Note that only manufacturers with several commercial references have been detained in this survey. The three main manufacturers in terms of installed units and installed power are Turboden (Pratt & Whitney) (45% of installed units worldwide, 8.6% of cumulated power), ORMAT (24% of installed units, 86% of cumulated power) and Maxxtec (23% of installed units, 3.4% of cumulated power) [24]. The large share Table 2 Non-exhaustive list of the main ORC manufacturers. Sources: Manufacturers websites; [24–32]. Manufacturer ORMAT, US Turboden, Italy Adoratec/Maxxtec, Germany Opcon, Sweden GMK, Germany Bosch KWK, Germany Turboden PureCycle, US GE CleanCycle Cryostar, France Tri-o-gen, Netherlands Electratherm, US Applications Geo., WHR, solar Biomass-CHP, WHR, Geo. Biomass-CHP WHR WHR, Geo., Biomass-CHP WHR WHR, Geo. WHR WHR, Geo. WHR WHR, Solar Power range [kWe] 200–70,000 200–2000 315–1600 350–800 50–5000 65–325 280 125 n/a Heat source temperature [1C] 150–300 100–300 300 o 120 120–350 120–150 91–149 4 121 100–400 4 350 Technology Fluid : n-pentane and others, two-stage axial turbine, synchronous generator Fluids : OMTS, Solkatherm, Two-stage axial turbines Fluid: OMTS Fluid: Ammonia, Lysholm Turbine 3000 rpm Multi-stage axial turbines (KKK) Fluid: R245fa Radial inflow turbine, Fluid: R245fa Single-state radial inflow turbine, 30,000 rpm, Fluid: R245fa Radial inflow turbine, Fluids: R245fa, R134a Radial turbo-expander, Fluid: Toluene Twin screw expander, Fluid: R245fa S. Quoilin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 168–186 173 160 50 493PDF Image | Techno-economic survey of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems
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