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Table 5 Summary of different working fluid studies. S. Quoilin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 168–186 177 Ref. Application [38] WHR [39] n/a [40] WHR [17] ICE [41] CHP [42] Geoth. [43] WHR [44] Geoth. [45] Geoth [46] WHR [47] Solar [48] Solar [49] WHR [50] WHR [51] WHR [52] CHP [53] ICE WHR [54] n/a Tcd (1C) 30–50 35–60 30 55 (100 for water) 90n 30n 35 30 25 25 35 45 25 40 50 50 35 30 27–87 n/a 30 Tev (1C) 120 80–110 150–200 60–150 (150–260 for water) 250–350n 70–90 60–100 100 80–115 100–210 60–100 120/230 145n 120 80–220 170 96–221 50–140 327n 277n 150 Considered fluids R11, R113, R114 Unconventional working fluids HCFC-123, iso-pentane, HFE 7100, Benzene Toluene, p-xylene Water, HCFC-123, isopentane, R245ca, HFC-245fa, butane, isobutene and R-152a ButylBenzene, Propyl-benzene, Ethylbenzene, Toluene, OMTS Ammonia, n-Pentane, HCFC-123, PF5050 HFC-245fa, HCFC-123, HFC-134a, n-pentane alkanes, fluorinated alkanes, ethers and fluorinated ethers propylene, R227ea, RC318, R236fa, ibutane, HFC-245fa R113, 123, R245ca, Isobutane Refrigerants Water , n-pentane HFE 7100, Cyclohexane, Toluene , HFC-245fa , n-dodecane, Isobutane water, ammonia, butane, isobutane R11 , HCFC-123, R141B, R236EA , R245CA , R113 Alcanes, Benzene, R113 , HCFC-123 , R141b, R236ea, R245ca , HFC-245fa , R365mfc, Toluene R600a, HFC-245fa, HCFC-123, R113 R365mfc, Heptane, Pentane, R12, R141b, Ethanol HFC-134a, R11, Benzene RC-318, R-227ea, R-113, iso-butane, n-butane, n-hexane, iso-pentane, neo-pentane, R-245fa, R-236ea, C5F12, R236fa HFC-245fa , R245ca ,R236ea, R141b , HCFC-123,R114, R113, R11, Butane R12, HCFC-123, HFC-134a, R717 n-Pentane, SES36, R245fa, R134a Recommended fluids R113 HCFC-123, R124 Benzene, Toluene, HCFC-123 Water, R245-ca and isopentane ButylBenzene Ammonia HCFC-123, n-pentane RE134, RE245, R600, HFC-245fa, R245ca, R601 Propylene, R227ea, HFC-245fa R113 R152a, R600, R290 n-dodecane R236EA Toluene, Benzene R113, HCFC-123 Ethanol Benzene n-hexane R11, R141b, R113, HCFC-123, HFC-245fa, R245ca HCFC-123 R245fa, SES36 [55] WHR [56] WHR [13] Solar The part of the n Max/min study evaluating supercritical working fluids has not been taken into account. temperature of the heat source/sink instead of evaporating or condensing temperature. Different working conditions (e.g. the considered tempera- ture ranges) are assumed, leading to different optimal working fluids. The objective functions in the optimization depend on the target application: in CHP or solar applications the cycle efficiency is usually maximized, while in WHR applications, the output power should be maximized [58]. It follows that, since no working fluid can be flagged as optimal, the study of the working fluid candidates should be integrated into the design process of any ORC system. Many studies [38,39,41,43,46,48,50–56] recommend the fluid with the highest critical temperature, which might suggest that the plant efficiency could be further improved by selecting even higher critical point working fluids [40]. However, as aforemen- tioned, a high critical temperature also implies working at low vapor densities, leading to higher system cost. It can therefore be concluded that the thermodynamic effi- ciency alone cannot be considered as the sole criterion for the selection of the working fluid. More holistic selection methods should be considered. However, very few studies include addi- tional parameters taking into account the practical design of the ORC system, mainly because of the difficulty to define a proper function for a multi-objective optimization of the cycle. Examples of such studies are provided in [58–62], where a fluid selection taking into account the required heat exchange area, turbine size, cost of the system, risk, etc. are provided. These studies reveal that taking the economics into account can lead to the selection of very different optimal operating conditions and working fluids. Those methods should therefore be preferred to the simplistic thermodynamic benchmarking of candidate working fluids. 6. Expansion machines The performance of an ORC system strongly correlates with that of the expander. The choice of the technology depends on the operating conditions and on the size of the system. Two main types of machines can be distinguished: the turbo and positive displace- ment types. Similar to refrigeration applications, displacement type machines are more appropriate in small-scale ORC units (Fig. 10), as they are characterized by lower flow rates, higher pressure ratios and much lower rotational speeds than turbo-machines [63]. 6.1. Turbomachines A distinction is generally made between two main types of turbines: the axial turbine and the radial inflow turbine. Axial turbines show a distinct design when used in combina- tion with high molecular weight working fluids. The main difference between organic fluids and steam is the enthalpy drop during the expansion, which is much higher for steam. As already mentioned, fewer stages are required in the case of an organic fluid. Even single-stage turbines can be employed for low or medium temperature ORC cycles. Another characteristic of organic fluids is the low speed of sound. As a result, this speed is reached much sooner in an ORC than in a steam cycle and constitutes an important limitation as high Mach numbers are related to higher irreversibilities and lower turbine efficiencies. Radial inflow turbines are designed for high pressure ratios and low working fluid flow rates. Their geometry allows higher peripheral speeds than for axial turbines, and therefore a higher enthalpy drop per stage. They also have the advantage of main- taining an acceptable efficiency over a large range of part-loadPDF Image | Techno-economic survey of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems
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