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184 S. Quoilin et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 22 (2013) 168–186 Table 7 Advanced architectures for the next generation Organic Rankine Cycles. compressors. Turbomachines are mainly designed for larger- scale applications and show a higher degree of technical maturity. The literature review of small-scale expanders showed that the scroll expander is the most widely used for very small-scale applications, while screw expanders are used for slightly higher output powers (up to a few hundreds kWe). Reported overall isentropic efficiencies are very variable, with a maximum value around 70% if generator losses are included, or 80% for the mechanical isentropic efficiency. The need for a unified definition of the performance indicators in experimental studies was high- lighted, and a general definition of the isentropic efficiency was proposed. In the last part of the paper, more particular technological issues such as pump cavitation or acid dew point were consid- ered, describing the most common solutions proposed by manu- facturers or in the scientific literature. Finally, the current tracks for R&D were described, providing figures of their potential impact on the cycle performance. Acknowledgments Some results presented in this paper have been obtained within the frame of the IWT SBO-110006 Project ‘‘The Next Generation Organic Rankine Cycles’’ (www.orcnext.be), funded by the Institute for the Promotion and Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT). This financial support is gratefully acknowledged. References [1] European Climate Foundation, 2010, EU Roadmap 2050. Available from: /http://www.roadmap2050.euS. [2] Tchanche BF, Lambrinos G, Frangoudakis A, Papadakis G. Low-grade heat conversion into power using organic Rankine cycles—a review of various applications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2011;15:3963–79. [3] Ve ́lez F, Segovia J, Martı ́n MC, Antolı ́n G, Chejne F, Quijano A. A technical, economical and market review of Organic Rankine Cycles for the conversion of low-grade heat for power generation. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2012;6:4175–89. [4] Moro R, Pinamonti P, Reini M. ORC technology for waste-wood to energy conversion in the furniture manufacturing industry. Thermal Science 2008;12:61–73. [5] Chinesen D, Meneghetti A, Nardin G. Diffused introduction of Organic Rankine Cycle for biomass-based power generation in an industrial district: a systems analysis. International Journal of Energy Research 2004;28: 1003–21. [6] Rentizelas A, Karellas S, Kakaras E, Tatsiopoulos I. Comparative techno- economic analysis of ORC and gasification for bioenergy applications. Energy Conversion and Management 2009;50(3):674–81. [7] Kranz S. Market Survey—Germany, Low-Bin project, 2007. Available from: /http://www.lowbin.eu/documentation.phpS [accessed 14.04.12]. [8] Lazzaretto A, Toffolo A, Manente G, Rossi N, Paci M. Cost evaluation of Organic Rankine Cycles for low temperature geothermal sources. In: Proceedings of ECOS 2011, Novi Sad, Serbia, July 2011. [9] Frick S. Design Approach for Geothermal Binary Power Plants, Low-Bin project, 2009. Available from: /http://www.lowbin.eu/documentation. phpS. [accessed 14.04.12]. [10] Mu ̈ller-Steinhagen H, Trieb F. Concentrating solar power—a review of the technology. Quarterly of the Royal Academy of Engineering Ingenia 2004;18:43–50. [11] Ford G. CSP: bright future for linear fresnel technology? Renewable Energy Focus 2008;9(5):48–51. [12] Canada S. Parabolic Trough Organic Rankine Cycle Solar Power Plant, DOE Solar Energy Technologies, NREL, 2004. [13] Quoilin S, Orosz M, Lemort V. Performance and design optimization of a low-cost solar Organic Rankine Cycle for remote power generation. Solar Energy 2011. [14] Bundela PS, Chawla V. Sustainable development through waste heat recovery. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 2010;6(1):83–9. [15] Bailey O, Worrell E. Clean energy technologies: a preliminary inventory of the potential for electricity generation, 2005. [16] Engin T, Ari V. Energy auditing and recovery for dry type cement rotary kiln systems—a case study. Energy Conversion and Management 2005;46(4): 551–62. Architecture Transcritical cycles Zeotropic mixtures Regenerative cycles Cascaded Cycles Cycles with reheating Two-phase expansion cycles Multiple evaporation pressures Performance improvement (%) Ref. 8 upto16 14 [96] N/A [77] 4 [97] N/A [98] 16 [99] [94] [95] While the current state of the art shows a maturity for the first generation of ORC cycles, there is still an important lack of know– how and room for improvement, urging for further strategic basic research. Analogous to the historical improvement of the steam cycle efficiency (e.g. about 20% with the introduction of the supercritical cycle), the goal should be to increase the ORC efficiency (typically 16%) beyond 20%. Current R&D focuses on working fluid selection issues (see Table 5 for a review), but also on innovative cycles architectures. The main investigated tracks are summarized in Table 7, with their respective potentials for performance increase. Some research groups focus on turbine optimization, which involves studying real-gas effects (in particular close to the critical point) and developing new accurate equations of states (see e.g. [100]). Regarding the control strategies, state-of-the-art ORC units are usually designed for a nominal operating point, and exhibit poor performance in part-load conditions. In a previous work [101], it was demonstrated that the cycle second-law efficiency can be improved by about 10% by implementing a proper control strategy taking into account the heat source variability, and by continuously re- optimizing the operating conditions. 10. Conclusions In this paper, the current state of the ORC technology was described, with an emphasis on the temperature levels and on the specificities of each application. The main manufacturers were listed, describing their activity field, the main technological characteristics of their ORC solutions, and their power range. Comparison with the traditional steam cycle revealed that ORC cycles are more appropriate for moderate power ranges and/or for low-temperature application such as low temperature waste heat recovery or geothermal. The ORC market has grown exponentially since the beginning of the 1980s, mainly in the fields of biomass CHP, geothermal energy and waste heat recovery. A compilation of the available market data showed that actual plants size is limited principally by a minimum power output of a few hundreds of kWe. Low- capacity systems are currently under development or in the demonstration phase but still require niche markets to begin industrial production and reduce their cost. Working fluids and expansion machines are two key aspects of ORC technology. This survey underlined the large number of working fluid studies in the literature and pointed out their limitations. The need for more holistic working fluid studies, taking into account additional properties of the working fluid beyond the sole thermo- dynamic performance was highlighted. Studies taking into account the impact of the working fluid on the system cost or on the component size are of particular interest and constitute a research area that should be further explored. Positive displacement machines are preferably used for small- scale applications. At present, most of the employed positive displacement expanders are obtained by modifying existingPDF Image | Techno-economic survey of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems
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