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Bahram Saadatfar, Reza Fakhrai and Torsten Fransson, JMES Vol 1 Issue 1 2013 (collector efficiency was 71%) in a 1.6 kWe solar ORC in their research with using a rolling piston expander and R245fa [84,85]. Jing et al. predicted overall efficiency 7.9% for the introduced ORC cycle using R123 as working fluid and coupled to compound parabolic collector [86]. A CSP-ORC plant (1 MWe) uses n-pentane as the working fluid with an efficiency of 20% (overall solar to electricity efficiency is 12.1% at the design point) was completed in 2006 in Arizona [26]. 4.3 Geothermal energy applications Geothermal energy is based on the heat from the Earth is assumed as a sustainable renewable source to produce clean electricity. Normally the geothermal wells have temperatures of between 50 – 350 °C [59]. However, a significant number of low temperature resources (<90 °C) have been identified around the world. To reach higher temperatures in earth, deeper wells are required and this makes the overall cost higher. Hot water from geothermal wells in a secondary loop is used as energy source in the evaporator of an ORC cycle. Since the water from the well circulates separately in a secondary loop this method has least pollution. Utilization of lower-grade geothermal wells (70 – 100 °C) is under intensive analysis. Due to relatively low source temperature and low temperature difference between forward and return water temperatures in the secondary loop, large heat exchanger area and high mass flow rates are required. Development and design of efficient heat exchangers is an important issue for a reliable and cost efficient system. For low-grade geothermal reservoir, the mutual type of power plant to build is a binary plant, with, organic fluids (ORC) or ammonia–water mixture (Kalina cycle), as a working fluid (Fig. 6[87]). Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of geothermal power plant a) Kalina cycle, and b) ORC [87]. Binary geothermal power plants are the most installed type with around 373 MW of power in 17 countries [88]. A geothermal ORC plant in Neustadt-Glewe in Germany of 210 kW and water at 98°C is one of the installed plant [89]. The Reno in Nevada, USA binary plant use isobutene as 171PDF Image | Waste heat recovery Organic Rankine cycles in sustainable energy conversion: A state-of-the-art review
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