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Bahram Saadatfar, Reza Fakhrai and Torsten Fransson, JMES Vol 1 Issue 1 2013 4.7 Micro scale CHP applications Presently, micro-scale CHP systems (1–10 kWe, the typical size range for building applications) as well as medium size (100 kWe) are undergoing development, and are emerging on the market with promising forecasts for the near future commercialisation [76,105]. Biomass CHP units are more common in many European countries and worldwide nowadays while the majority of the plants can be found in Germany and Austria [8,106]. The medium-scale biomass ORC CHP plants have already been demonstrated in Admont (400 kWe) and Lienz (1000 kWe) with 18% electrical efficiency and around 80% overall CHP efficiency [74,107]. Piacentino et al. [108] presented a conceptual scheme and a methodology to the design and optimization of a CCHP system. Mago et al. [21] studied economic and environmental performances of a CHP-ORC system and compared with standalone CHP system in different climate zones. Three different trigeneration systems’ performance: SOFC-trigeneration, biomass-trigeneration, and solar-trigeneration, discussed by Al-Sulaiman et al [109]. Chen et al. investigated the application of thermoelectric generation to CHP systems [110]. Nevertheless, the energy feasibility of CCHP, in terms of primary energy savings in comparison to stand-alone generation, is limited by the technologies, System structure and size, and by the cooling-to-heating ratio [111]. Iora et al. [112] analysed the potential of combining gas micro turbines with micro-ORC and resulted that, for a 100 kWe micro turbine, it is possible to obtain an additional 45 kW of electricity using residual heat and improve an electrical efficiency of 30% to 40%. Zhang et al.[113,114] studied working fluids for geothermal cogeneration. There are still issues demanding attention in implementation of technology in practice, namely the expansion device, as well as small heat exchangers. 5. Expansion machines The ORC efficiency is strongly a function of the used expander. The choice of expander type depends on heat source, operating conditions and size of the system. In general, they can be categorized into two types: one is the velocity type (Turbo), such as axial turbine expanders; the other is the volume type (positive displacement), such as screw expanders, scroll expanders and reciprocal piston expanders. Optimum operating map for expander and some applications are shown in Fig. 10[115]. The volume-type expanders are more applicable to the micro-CHP ORC because they are characterized by lower flow rates, higher pressure ratios and much lower rotational speeds comparison with the velocity-types [116]. Table 1 shows a brief comparison between different types of expanders. 175PDF Image | Waste heat recovery Organic Rankine cycles in sustainable energy conversion: A state-of-the-art review
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