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ENERGY RESoURCES mon with the search for gold deposits, which in essence are nothing more than fossilized geothermal systems.” Many of the techniques in oil and gas exploration are also used to locate geo- thermal systems. Of particular importance are chemical analyses of hot springs and fumaroles, which help to estimate subsur- face reservoir temperatures, and electrical resistivity surfaces, which can be used to locate areas of subsurface alteration and hot fluids. Gravity, magnetic, and seismic surveys can help delineate faults. Zeroing In Once high priority prospects have been identified, shallow, generally less than 1000 m, thermal-gradient wells are drilled. Tem- perature measurements are the primary product of the drilling. Other studies of the drill holes include thermal conductivity measurements on rock samples that per- Dr. Joseph Moore shows a typical core and fracture that drillers must hit to get the flows necessary for a successful geothermal well. Dr Moore is recognized worldwide for his research on the hydrothermal alteration, geology, and evolution of geothermal systems. The results of his investigations have been pub lished in numerous international scientific journals and conference proceedings. He currently serves on the Board of Directors of the Geo thermal Resources Council and as Associate Editor for the Americas of the journal Geothermics. Geologists Jeff Hulen, formerly with EGI, now a consultant, and Stu Johnson of Ormat, a major developer of geothermally gener ated electricity. Both have many years of experience in geother mal exploration and research. “There are many prospects yet to be found,” claim both Jeff and Stu, “many without distinct sur face indicators. A lot of detailed geologic work goes into finding these “blind” prospects”. mit gradient measurements to be convert- ed to heat flow. Lithologic and alteration logging of cuttings yield information on rock types, fracturing, and hydrothermal alteration that can be tied to the results of surface mapping. This technique is used to gain an improved understanding of the targeted geothermal resource at depth. A conceptual model is now made to integrate the prospect-specific geologic mapping, geochemical, alteration, and thermal-gradient information with the regional database. The geoscientist can estimate the lateral extent, depth, heat- source types, and temperature of the prospect. Detailed geologic and heat flow mapping, resistivity, self-potential surveys, and the drilling of slim holes (commonly cored borehole drilled to 300 to 1000 m) can be done to complete the conceptual model at depth. Testing the Prospect All exploration work outlined above still does not guarantee success, but must be done to minimize the risk of drilling poorly placed production wells. Drilling the pro- duction test well is by far the most expen- sive and riskiest portion of finding and developing a geothermal field. As drilling progresses, the conceptual model of the resource is refined and the risk decreases. “To be successful for the purposes of generating electricity, production wells must yield large quantities, about 2,000 gal- lons (7.6 m3) per minute (69,000 b/11,000 m3 per day), of hot water,” says Stu Johnson of Ormat. Once substantial flows are established by test wells, injection wells need to be drilled to continually recharge the con- vective system. Most of the fields have a ratio of 2 producers for every injection well. All produced water is reinjected to maintain reservoir pressure. Production and injection must be carefully managed so that temperatures and pressures are maintained. Mud logger, Neil Peterson, of Horizon Well Log ging, looks for evidence of hydrothermal altera tion in cuttings and monitors the well for loss of circulation, an indicator that the well will be a good producer. Enhanced Geothermal Systems Naturally occurring geothermal systems are limited, not so much by the heat source, but by the amount of fluid and the number and size of the fractures available for the fluid to circulate and absorb the heat. According to Dr. Moore “there is still a good inventory of naturally occurring geothermal systems yet to be put into pro- duction, but there are far more potential high-temperature sites that lack adequate permeability through a connected fracture network. The future of geothermal electri- 42 GEOExProOctober2007 t © Tom SmithPDF Image | Bright Future for Geothermal Energy
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