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become virtually ineffective in controlling groundwater extraction. The results are declining groundwater tables and, eventually, aquifer depletion. However, there are also counter-examples such as in Bangladesh, where subsidizing energy has benefited smallholder farmers without over- exploiting water resources (Section 6.6). Climate change and variability further complicate the situation (Box 1.2). Major droughts and high temperatures can hinder the ability of the power sector to achieve sufficient cooling, leading to power outages. When the monsoon rains arrived late in 2012, leaving much of northern India in drought and extreme heat, farmers turned to electrical pumps to bring groundwater to the surface for irrigation. Electricity demand peaked at the same time that hydropower reservoirs were at their lowest, resulting in numerous blackouts. The reverse scenario can also occur: a problem with a power grid far away might become a local power outage that inhibits water production and treatment. Other examples of water and energy interconnections include policies supporting the development of biofuels that have had negative impacts on land, water and food prices (Section 9.2.2). Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels in transport will measurably reduce the carbon footprint, but will also enlarge the water footprint of transport (UNEP, 2011a). Desalination of salt water and pumping of freshwater supplies over large distances may help reduce freshwater scarcity in certain places, but will also increase energy use. Conflicts over water between irrigation and hydropower (Section 6.2) provide yet another example. Interconnections, however, need not necessarily have negative repercussions. In France, for example, under the RT 2020 sustainable energy framework all buildings by 2020 will produce more energy than they consume, and they will also purify and recycle water naturally. Such policies are driving the development of innovative technologies; for example, a system that filters wastewater for use as grey water while at the same time harnessing the energy-generating potential of the algae present in the wastewater. An added benefit of this approach is that it reduces the volume of wastewater returning to the treatment plant, ultimately resulting in energy savings. Women and children represent a disproportionately large fraction of the bottom billion, the poorest one billion people on Earth, and, as such, have the most to gain from poverty reduction measures centred on improving access to water supply and energy services (Box 1.3). In most cases, service provision to the poor would not significantly affect access to other users. 1.3 Gender and equity dimensions The term ‘bottom billion’ refers to the world’s population living on less than US$1.25 per day. Most of these people suffer from malnutrition and lack access to safe water supplies and electricity (or other forms of upgraded energy). Providing these basic services is a key factor in lifting these and other poor people out of poverty and helps create opportunities for generating income. In Lima, Peru, the experience of the Water for All Programme suggests that providing urban families in extreme poverty with a connection to piped water services, without any additional (permanent) subsidy, resulted in a total increase in disposable family income of 14% per month (CEPAL, 2011). In developing countries, women and girls bear most of the work burden associated with managing water and energy scarcity, fetching water for the 780 million people lacking access to improved sources of drinking water (WHO/UNICEF, 2012) and collecting firewood for the 2.7 billion depending on traditional biomass for cooking (UNEP, 2011b). This adds to their time and work burdens and seriously compromises their educational and employment opportunities, perpetuating the intergenerational transfer of poverty and disempowerment. Available statistics often fail to recognize or measure their real contributions to their economies and communities as unpaid water and energy providers. Water and firewood collection can place women and girls at increased risk of sexual or physical assault, especially at night in the absence of adequate street lighting. The over-reliance on wood, straw, charcoal or dung for cooking and heating is detrimental to women and children’s health – they account for more than 85% of the two million deaths each year attributed to cancer, respiratory infection and lung disease due to indoor air pollution (UNDP/WHO, 2009). It is estimated that by 2030 more than 4,000 people will die prematurely each day from household air pollution (IEA, 2010). Women and girls are also the most exposed to waterborne diseases (WWAP, 2012). Source: UN Women. WWDR 2014 THE WATER–ENERGY NEXUS 21 BOxPDF Image | Water and Energy
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