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Surface water, when located near delivery points, is usually the least energy intensive to distribute, but can be highly polluted. Groundwater generally requires little treatment, but more energy to pump it to the surface. Brackish groundwater requires significant energy for treatment, depending on the level of total dissolved solids in the water (the more salts to be removed, the more energy required). Seawater desalination is at the high end of the energy intensity scale, with energy requirements being a function of water temperature and salinity (Figure 2.2). Growth in desalination has increased significantly over the past 20 years as countries seek to augment natural water supplies and as the combined energy and industrial costs have reportedly dropped to below US$0.50/m3 (IRENA, 2012a). There are currently more than 16,000 desalination plants worldwide, with a total global operating capacity of roughly 70 million m3/day (IDA, n.d.). Some industry observers have suggested operating capacity could nearly double by 2020. Desalinated water involves the use of at least 75.2 TWh/year, which is about 0.4% of global electricity consumption (IRENA, 2012a). Although this technology may be appropriate for supplementing water supplies for some domestic and industrial users in middle and high income regions near the coast, it is currently not an affordable alternative for the poorest countries, for large water consuming sectors such as agriculture, or for consumption at a distance from the plant due to transportation costs. There are promising advances in desalination (Section 5.2.1; Box 12.2) though at the same time it is recognized that increased salinity levels in seawater caused by desalination can have negative impacts on local marine ecosystems. Groundwater is the primary source of drinking water worldwide, and in countries such as Denmark and Mexico comprises a significant portion of water supply (99% and 95%, respectively) while the same ratio is 38% for the United States of America (USA) (Chilton, 2002; Kenny et al., 2009). Groundwater pumping typically requires around 0.1 kWh/m3 at 36.5 m depth to 0.5 kWh/m3 at 122 m depth (US GAO, 2011). Groundwater is often cited as a high quality source that requires less treatment than surface water. When groundwater is relatively free of microbial contamination and any chemical contamination is localized, its treatments costs can be much lower than surface water. For example, in Canada, operation and maintenance costs (including energy and labour) of plants treating groundwater are approximately half on average An interesting and notable flip side of the water–energy nexus is that wastewater is becoming recognized as a potential source of energy rather than as a mere waste stream. In several countries, water supply companies are working towards becoming energy neutral. of those treating surface water (Statistics Canada, 2011). More than 17% of Canadian groundwater requires no treatment and nearly 30% requires only disinfection. Given that the depth of wells, and therefore pumping costs, are dependent on groundwater level, ensuring adequate recharge rates can result in long-term cost and energy savings. In this regard, sustainable groundwater management, including managing aquifer recharge (Box 2.1), can lead to positive benefits. 2.1 Aquifer recharge Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is the process of intentionally banking, and in some cases treating, water in aquifers. MAR is used both to prevent degradation of groundwater resources and to generate additional sources of drinking water via storage or bioremediation of wastewater. There are several types of MAR, some of which require energy (e.g. aquifer storage and recovery) and some of which do not (e.g. infiltration ponds) (Dillon, 2005; Tuinhof et al., 2012). Energy consumptive MAR are used mostly in the USA and in Australia, while non-consumptive MAR are used in nearly every region of the world (Tuinhof et al., 2012). The use of MAR to create or augment existing water supplies could have measurable energy savings and carbon emission reductions. For example, a study examining parts of the San Francisco Bay Area showed that creating local water supplies could save 637 million kWh/year. Given that the energy required to pump groundwater increases with depth, preventing groundwater depletion also results in long-term energy savings (US DOE, 2006). Source: Kirstin I. Conti, IGRAC and University of Amsterdam. WWDR 2014 WATER: DEMANDS, ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND AVAILABILITY 25 BOxPDF Image | Water and Energy
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