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26 CHAPTER 2 STATUS, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES An interesting and notable flip side of the water–energy nexus is that wastewater is becoming recognized as a potential source of energy (Sections 5.2.4, 7.4.3; Box 16.4) rather than as a mere waste stream. In several countries, water supply companies are working towards becoming energy neutral; they intend to generate an amount of energy from wastewater that equals the amount of energy consumed in their other operations. [ See Chapters 17 and 24 (Volume 2) for the case studies ‘Green energy generation in Vienna, Austria’ and ‘Green energy production from municipal sewage sludge in Japan’, respectively. ] 2.4 Water availability While data on precipitation – which can be measured with relative ease – are generally available for most countries, river runoff and groundwater levels are generally much more difficult and costly to monitor. As a result, trends regarding changes in the overall availability of freshwater supplies are difficult to determine in all but a few places in the world. However, it is clear that several countries face varying degrees of water scarcity, stress or vulnerability (Figure 2.3).7 In the absence of flow regulation by artificial storage infrastructure, the availability of surface water varies from place to place across days, seasons, years and decades as a function of climate variability. Climate change means past hydrological trends are no longer indicative of future water availability. According to the most recent climate projections from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2008), dry regions are to a large extent expected to get drier and wet regions are expected to get wetter, and overall variability will increase. There is mounting evidence that this is indeed happening as a result of an intensification of the water cycle (Durack et al., 2012) and it is affecting local regional water supplies, including those available for energy production. There is clear evidence that groundwater supplies are diminishing, with an estimated 20% of the world’s aquifers being over-exploited, some massively so (Gleeson et al., 2012). Globally, the rate of groundwater abstraction is increasing by 1% to 2% per year (WWAP, 2012), 7 For more detailed information on water availability, stress and scarcity, see WWAP (2012, section 4.6, ‘In or out of balance?’). 2.3 Total renewable water resources, 2011 (m3 per capita per year) FIGURE Absolute scarcity Scarcity Stress Vulnerability 0 500 1000 1700 2500 7500 15000 50000 Source: WWAP, prepared with data from FAO AQUASTAT (aggregate data for all countries except Andorra and Serbia, external data) (website accessed Oct 2013), and using UN-Water category thresholds.PDF Image | Water and Energy
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