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In some places, water is used for transporting fuels, such as waterways throughout Europe and many parts of Asia that float barges carrying coal from mines to power plants. In other places water is used to permit coal slurry to be transported from coal mines to power plants through pipelines. Energy accounts for a significant fraction of a country’s water use (both consumptive and non-consumptive). In developing countries, 10% to 20% of withdrawals are used to meet industrial needs, including energy (Boberg, 2005). In some developed countries, where a smaller fraction is used for agriculture, more than 50% of water withdrawals are used for power plant cooling alone (Section 3.3.1). The following sections describe the potential implications and impacts of energy production on water and examine supply and demand trends for different forms of primary energy8 and electrical power generation. 3.2 Primary energy Water is used to produce fuels in the extractive industries in a variety of ways, each requiring different quantities of water (Figure 3.1). For example, many coal seams need to be dewatered before mining can commence. That water use is often classed as consumptive because the water might not subsequently be available for other uses. Water is also used for leaching minerals in uranium mining, with significant impacts on the downstream environment. Significant volumes of water are used for oil and gas production. Generally, biofuels require more water per unit energy than extracted fuels because of the water needed for photosynthesis, and unconventional fossil fuels require more water than conventional fossil fuels. There is evidence that demand for all types of primary energy will increase over the period 2010–2035 (IEA, 2012a) (Figure 3.2). Despite the ongoing progress of ‘clean’ technology policies promoting renewables, the world’s global energy system appears to remain on a relatively fixed path with respect to its continued reliance on fossil fuels. A shift away from oil and coal (and, in some 8 The term ‘primary energy’ is associated with any energy source that is extracted from a stock of natural resources or captured from a flow of resources and that has not undergone any transformation or conversion other than separation and cleaning. Examples include coal, crude oil, natural gas, solar power and nuclear power. ‘Secondary energy’ refers to any energy that is obtained from a primary energy source by a transformation or conversion process. Thus oil products or electricity are secondary energies as these require refining or electric generators to produce them (IEA, 2004). countries, nuclear power) is expected in OECD countries, where energy demand is not expected to rise appreciably. Despite the growth in low carbon sources of energy, however, fossil fuels are expected to remain dominant in the global energy mix (IEA, 2012a). 3.1 Water withdrawals and consumption vary for fuel production Conventional gas Coal Shale gas Refined oil (conventional)* Refined oil (oil sands)** Gas-to-liquids Coal-to-liquids Refined oil (EOR)*** Lignocellulosic ethanol**** Palm oil biodiesel Rapeseed biodiesel Soybean biodiesel Corn ethanol Sugar cane ethanol <1 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 Litres per toe Withdrawal Consumption * The minimum is for primary recovery; the maximum is for secondary recovery. ** The minimum is for in-situ production, the maximum is for surface mining. *** Includes carbon dioxide injection, steam injection and alkaline injection and in-situ combustion. **** Excludes water use for crop residues allocated to food production. Note: toe, tonne of oil equivalent (1 toe = 11.63 MWh = 41.9 GJ). Ranges shown are for ‘source-to-carrier’ primary energy production, which includes withdrawals and consumption for extraction, processing and transport. Water use for biofuels production varies considerably because of differences in irrigation needs among regions and crops; the minimum for each crop represents non-irrigated crops whose only water requirements are for processing into fuels. EOR, enhanced oil recovery. For numeric ranges, see http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org. Source: IEA (2012a, fig. 17.3, p. 507, based on sources cited therein). World Energy Outlook 2012 © OECD/IEA. WWDR 2014 ENERGY’S THIRST FOR WATER 29 FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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